Education in the social sciences is about increasing people’s understanding of society’s activities in a global context. In a democratic society, where citizenship entails rights and obligations, this participation is a cooperative process in which people work together to promote their individual and collective welfare. Understanding these activities and processes and how to contribute to them is the key to successful participation. This understanding is the focus of the social science subjects.

The most precise knowledge of society lies in the theories, concepts and processes that the social sciences have developed in studying past, present and future societies. With this knowledge, schools construct programs that contribute to the overall aims of education and to the important needs of students and the community. Thus, learning in the social sciences is a process of expanding and refining the personal resources with which people inquire into, make decisions about and participate in the everyday life of their society.

The social sciences in the senior secondary school provide the knowledge necessary to understand the social, cultural, political and economic activities and institutions of society and their relationship with the natural environment. Students can become more effective and committed participants in their society—for example, as workers, citizens, consumers, family members—by expanding their knowledge of human experience and achievement in diverse contexts in space and time.

To help achieve this goal, school programs will emphasise how to use knowledge and understanding to investigate problems, make considered decisions and take action in the modern world. The processes that underlie these abilities combine the specialised knowledge of social science with the social understanding and action skills by which people work together to recognise, analyse and attempt to solve problems in their everyday lives.

Studies in social science are selected because they are relevant to the welfare of all students and to the good of the local and world community. Equity issues, such as gender, culture, class and the distribution of world resources, and questions related to the sustainability of the world environment will be important factors in choosing topics for study and teaching strategies. This will involve a critical understanding of value issues involved in social science itself, for to select issues and consider solutions is to make value judgments about what is important and appropriate. Underlying these studies and the values involved in them will be a commitment to human rights, social justice and ecological sustainability.

By studying human societies and their achievements, by using the analytical and problem-solving techniques of the social science disciplines, and from the critical understanding of values (rights, justice and sustainability) in thinking about and acting in society, students develop personally useful resources for analysing the world around them. In practising and applying these to the just and productive resolution of the challenges and opportunities which the world presents, students will become valuable members of the community. Studied in this way the social sciences make a central contribution to a rewarding and productive education.

1.2 Geography: a medium for education

Geography is offered in the school curriculum because it is a valuable medium for the education of young people. Its contributions lie in the content, cognitive processes, skills and values that Geography can promote to help students better explore, understand and evaluate the social and environmental dimensions of the world. Geography also evokes feelings for environments and people in environments.

Geography in the school curriculum involves the education of young people about, in, and for the society and environment in which they live. It is based upon the following educational assumptions:

1. Knowledge about the environment and society within spatial units, ranging through local, regional, national and global scales, and the development of inquiry skills are essential to knowing about people and places, becoming informed and active citizens, and developing a love of learning. The development of inquiry skills by students facilitates lifelong learning and their capacity to use geography to help them make decisions about their own lives. Skills in geography include those associated with geographic information systems and other forms of electronic information storage, manipulation and transmission, as well as the more traditional skills such as those associated with cartographics and climatology. The methods of inquiry commonly adopted by geographers and the concepts and questions guiding geographical studies are elaborated in section 6 of this syllabus.

2. Experiences in the social and physical environments are major sources of understanding in geography. Therefore, students already have a range of geographical skills and values simply because of their daily experiences with people and environments. Geography develops these understandings and abilities to enable students to fulfil their potential as inhabitants of a finite world.

3. Education for the society and environments in which students live incorporates the knowledge, analytical, decision-making, and research and communication objectives for Geography teaching. The development of knowledge, processes and skills encompassed by the objectives will enable students to participate in and seek to improve their environment and their society. There are many global dimensions to life in Queensland and Australia today. While students may be members of particular cultural groups and inhabit specific environments, studying Geography expands students’ horizons so that they appreciate the network of interactions between societies and environments around the world. This helps them adopt a global perspective in making decisions about, and acting in, their local society and environment. Geography can be applied to many fields of decision making, e.g. town planning and resource conservation.

4. Education for societies and environments also entails affective aspects of human behaviour in which feelings and values are prominent. They include feeling for and enjoyment of landscape and the formation of values underpinning human and environmental justice.

5. A course in Geography should provide students with a grounding in both the physical and human aspects of the subject. Both are essential when dealing with issues that have a spatial dimension. In order to solve many of the problems resulting from the interaction of people and the environment, the skills of other specialists may be required. Geographers will work as part of a team combining their special skills of spatial analysis with the skills of others.

6. Students of Geography should be aware that the field of study is dynamic. Technological advances are moving at a rapid pace. Geography students should be familiar with the latest technological developments have an impact on the field of geography.

1.3 Approaches to Geography

Geography is the study of the earth’s surface as the space in which people live. Geography includes studies of place and of people–environment relationships.

The environment consists of human and physical elements that interact to produce a variety of biotic zones and patterns of human occupancy on Earth. An understanding of the human and physical components of the environment, and of the ways that people in different parts of the world have perceived and responded to their environment, is a particular focus of geographical studies. Also of major importance is the investigation of the different environmental, social, economic and political processes that operate to produce patterns of people–environment relationships in the human use of the earth.

These studies arise out of the study of people and place. Environments may include those that are largely natural, and those mainly developed by people. The same environment may be perceived differently by different people. Geographical education is characterised by the development of a concern for questions, issues and problems that stem from the relationships and interactions between people and their environment.

The distribution of features on the earth’s surface is far from uniform. Geographers seek to understand the mutual impacts of people and place and to suggest options and scenarios so that improvements in human and environmental welfare might be achieved.

Geography is concerned not only with a study of physical environments per se, but also with the way that people have sought to modify physical and social environments, and with the effects of such human actions. The environmental and social effects of these human actions can be either beneficial or detrimental depending on the extent of human understanding of the environment, of decisions made about its use, and of the impact of physical systems on the environment and on any decisions made about its use. Geography also considers how people in certain situations may be influenced by environmental circumstances.

The syllabus is constructed around four themes to provide schools with a framework within which to develop a course of study in geography. The four themes are designed to cover a broad range of studies in geography such as physical, social, economic and environmental studies. The syllabus facilitates the use of an investigative technique that is based on the fundamental questions of geography, as detailed in section 6. The study of decision-making and planning processes in relation to geographical issues can develop student understanding of ethical and political concepts such as conflict of interest, justice and fairness, rights and obligations, responsibility and democracy.

Through studying Geography, students will:

• develop an understanding of the contribution of geography to understand questions, issues and problems arising from the human perception and use of the earth’s resources:

• become proficient in the use of the key questions and concepts of geography and the way they guide the process of geographic investigation:

• use geographical concepts to organise information about people and environments to achieve an understanding of questions, issues and problems:

• become proficient in the use of a range of thinking, social, communication, practical and study skills, and be able to use each step in following through the stages of a geographical investigation:

• develop a concern for the sustainability of the environment and the quality of human life through the exploration of a range of attitudes and values related to ecologically sustainable development, social justice and democratic processes and institutions:

• value the study of geography:

• develop the knowledge, abilities and ethical commitment to participate as active citizens in the shaping of the future:

The objectives have been formulated in terms of specific behaviours that are considered desirable for students to acquire, and have been defined as:

• knowledge
• analytical processes
• decision-making processes
• research and communication
• affective.

The first four objectives, knowledge, analytical processes, decision-making processes, and research and communication, are linked to the exit criteria. The affective objectives describe the attitudes, values and feelings that the syllabus aims to develop. They are not assessed for the awarding of exit levels of achievement.

3.1 Knowledge

Knowledge relates to the significant key questions of geography: how, what, where and why, where a recall component is involved. At the conclusion of the course, students should have a knowledge of:

• geographical facts, concepts and key ideas, theories and explanations of the relationships between people and their environments
• the characteristics of natural and cultural phenomena across a range of scales
• the processes that affect the location, distribution and arrangement of geographical elements on the earth
• the processes geographers use to investigate environmental and spatial aspects of human decision making
• the impact of people on the environment
• the impact of the environment on the quality of life
• equity issues as they apply to Geography.

3.2 Analytical processes

Analytical processes relate to the key questions:

• What and where are the issues being studied?
• How and why are they there?
• What are their impacts or consequences?

Students should be able to understand the meaning of information to answer the what and where key questions. The ability to understand the meaning of information as opposed to the ability to recall information is shown when students can interpret and extrapolate from text or illustrative material, or translate information from one form to another.

Students should be able to break information into parts, draw out relationships and therefore be able to answer the how and why and what impact key questions. The ability to analyse, as opposed to the ability to recall, is shown when students can recognise trends, similarities/differences and patterns for themselves to explain the possible cause of an issue/problem.

3.3 Decision-making processes

Decision-making processes relate to the key question: What is being and could be done?

Students should be able to select between alternatives by applying appropriate criteria to arrive at a decision that recognises the environmental, social, economic and political implications of an issue. By explaining the application of these criteria, students should be able to justify their decision. By doing this, students are able to answer the what is being and could be done key question. Students may of course arrive at varied decisions that are of equal merit because of the quality of the justification.

3.4 Research and communication

Geography requires effective skills in research and communication. These are to be developed throughout the course at an increasing level of sophistication. These skills include gathering information from a variety of sources and presenting information in a variety of ways.

At the completion of the course, students should have developed research and communication abilities in:

• Gathering information and primary data from a variety of sources including:
• maps (topographic, orthophoto, thematic, geological)
• statistics, graphs
• databases and geographical information systems
• websites
• photographs: horizontal, aerial (both vertical and oblique), satellite
• diagrammatic representation, e.g. flow, block diagram
• books, periodicals, reports
• audiovisual materials
• field work (observation, surveys)
• field equipment
• community personnel.

Gathering information from such learning resources and settings is an integral part of the learning experiences of Geography students. The techniques used in the effective gathering of information should be incorporated into teaching programs in a systematic way.

Skills to be developed include:

• developing a research plan
• selecting and organising relevant information
• observing
• summarising, note making
• recording measurements
• sketching, mapping, surveying
• interviewing
• listening
• recording relevant bibliographical and referencing information.
• Communicating and presenting information in a variety of ways appropriate to the learning experiences of students, including:
• maps (land use, choropleth, isoline, dot, flow)
• tables of data
• graphs (column, line, scatter, population pyramid)
• photographs
• diagrams/sketches(cross section, systems diagrams, flow diagram)
• observation schedules
• written reports
• written essays
• seminars (oral and written)
• audiovisual formats
• computer presentations.

The skills and conventions students require to communicate and present information effectively in these ways should be incorporated into the teaching program in a systematic way.

3.5 Affective objectives

As a result of their studies in Geography, students should develop:

• an attitude of concern for the quality of environments, the condition of human life and the biosphere as a life support system
• a willingness to relate to the environment and to participate in actions that ensure a sustainable future
• a willingness to challenge existing attitudes and values in environmental, social, cultural and economic issues
• the ability to clarify and develop personal values in relation to environmental, social and cultural questions, issues and problems
• an interest in learning as a lifelong process.

4.1 Language education

Language is the means by which people communicate and create meaning. Geography requires students to use language in a variety of ways but especially to access information and communicate effectively using a range of modes and media (oral, written, graphic and electronic) either singly or in combination. Learning experiences that enrich students’ vocabularies and enhance their understanding of key concepts are integral to the study of Geography. Students need to be involved in learning activities that require them to comprehend data in a variety of forms, to manipulate or process that data, and to compose appropriate responses to set tasks. Students should be assessed for exit purposes through instruments which in format and language have been experienced in class.

The learning of language is a developmental process and teachers of Geography play a vital role in that regard. Geographic expression and language use are characterised by:

• selection of appropriate style and media
• conciseness and clarity
• use of appropriate, effective and non-discriminatory language
• use of geographic terms with accuracy
• comprehension and interpretation of data from a variety of sources
• recording and summarising appropriately from a variety of sources
• use of conventions both discipline-specific and general
• use of illustrative and referencing conventions
• effective interaction with others in different sized groups
• presentation of information using various forms of technology.

Geographers make use of various styles of expression in order to communicate with others. Descriptive, expository, analytical, evaluative and persuasive styles of writing, speaking and presentation are but a few of the types of communication employed by geographers. Particular forms of communication, print, oral or graphical, are used to suit the audience and purpose of any communication. Reports, short responses, seminar presentations, interviews, note summaries, maps and graphs are among the more common forms used by geographers. Students should be encouraged to use other forms and styles that are consistent with the key questions of geography.

Students need opportunities to practise their communication skills with the support of sympathetic and discriminating audiences. Through the development of flexibility in using communication skills, students grow in their appreciation of the interaction of text and context as factors in the communication process. Students should also develop a critical awareness of their own language use and appraise that of texts and other media that form part of the learning environment.

Teachers should model the use of inclusive language in terms of gender, culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, religion and disability.

4.2 Quantitative concepts and skills

Success in dealing with issues and situations in life and work depends on the development and integration of a range of abilities, such as being able to:

• comprehend basic concepts and terms underpinning the areas of number, space, probability and statistics, and measurement
• extract, convert or translate information given in numerical forms, or as diagrams, maps, graphs or tables
• calculate and apply procedures
• use calculators and computers
• use skills or apply concepts from one problem or one subject domain to another.

In Geography, students are to be encouraged to develop their understanding and to learn through the incorporation of mathematical strategies and approaches to tasks which are appropriate to the subject. Similarly, students should be presented with experiences that stimulate their mathematical interest and hone those quantitative skills that contribute to operating successfully within each of their subject domains.

Geographers use a variety of numerical and other mathematical concepts and skills, especially those relating to graphs and tables, statistics, maps, diagrams and measurement. Geographers also make extensive use of computer databases and software packages to manipulate and represent geographical data and concepts.

The distinctive nature of Geography may require that new mathematical concepts be introduced and new skills developed for some students. All students need opportunities to practise the quantitative skills and understandings that they have developed previously. Within appropriate learning contexts and experiences in Geography, opportunities are to be provided for the revision, maintenance, and extension of such skills and understandings.

The senior syllabus in Geography requires a minimum of 55 hours of timetabled school time per semester including assessment. The course of study is based on four themes with two core units per theme and a range of elective units.

To fulfil the requirements of a two-year course, students must study:

• the four themes
• the two core units of each theme
• the key questions and key ideas within each unit
• a minimum of one, but no more than two, elective units in each of at least three semesters.

The four themes and core units offered in senior Geography are:

• Core unit 1: Responding to natural hazards
• Core unit 2: Managing catchments

• Core unit 3: Contrasting development
• Core unit 4: Feeding the world’s people

• Core unit 5: Sustaining urban and rural communities
• Core unit 6: Planning places

• Core unit 7: Living within physical systems
• Core unit 8: Managing resources

The selection of the four themes is designed to provide schools with a framework to develop a course of study in Geography. The four themes have been defined broadly through the core units to ensure that a balance of studies is undertaken and that flexibility and individuality of school programs are encouraged.

The themes and their core units cover a range of studies in geography, including physical, social, economic and environmental studies. Although the depth of these studies will vary from school to school, a comprehensive program should include some study in each of these areas.

The four themes may be studied in any sequence over the four semesters. The core and elective units may be studied in any sequence within a theme.

The core units allow schools to develop the statement of intent of each theme. The core units as described in the syllabus provide a framework for schools to select appropriate topics and case studies, to match the interests of their students, the availability of resources, and local conditions. The key questions and key ideas are not in themselves statements of content. They provide guidance for the selection of case studies at a depth sufficient to allow students to explore the unit and to demonstrate their ability to meet the general objectives of the syllabus. The core units must be studied, but schools are free to select material and develop learning experiences within them.

Elective units are all school-based, and are designed to give schools flexibility of choice in the structuring of the school’s course of study. This flexibility in the selection of case studies, of the order of presentation, and of the length of time to be devoted to either core or elective units will result in a course of study that is highly responsive to the needs of students.

The elective unit for a semester should relate to the theme for the semester. The relationship can occur in many ways. The selection of elective units may be made as a response to the interests of students and teachers as well as on the basis of the resources to which the school has access. The elective topics may be used to introduce a theme, to link core topics within a theme, to provide opportunities for the examination at greater depth of aspects of the theme, or to conclude a theme. The topic for the elective may arise from an area of interest developed in a core unit and explored to a greater degree in an elective unit. An elective unit at the conclusion of one theme may link to the next theme.

A minimum of three elective units must be studied with at least one studied in each of three semesters. This is to give schools the option of not studying an elective unit in Semester 4. No more than two electives may be studied in any one semester.

Core and elective units are not distinguished in level of importance, and therefore may be studied over similar time periods within a theme. Core units are to be undertaken over four to six weeks. The length of time available for an elective unit will depend on whether one or two are being studied in a semester. Elective units may be studied for up to half a semester, depending on how schools allocate time between core and elective units. In this manner schools may tailor their courses to meet the needs and interests of their students and the resources of the school.

Students enjoy studying a diversity of places. The intent of the syllabus is to encompass as broad and balanced a range as possible of geographical locations and issues. To facilitate this intent, each core unit should be studied at two scales and each elective at one scale. The purpose of studying each core unit at two scales is to set a context for a case study and to provide for some identification of relationships. The emphasis on each scale of study within a core unit need not be equal. The time spent on one scale of study may be two or three lessons in the form of an introduction, or a series of lessons where geographic skills are applied to unfamiliar data. The assessment of the core unit is likely to reflect the scale of study of greater emphasis; the second scale of study may or may not be assessed.

For the purposes of guidance within this syllabus, scales of study are defined as follows:

• Global—pertaining to the earth as a whole; patterns that encompass all or nearly all considerations, categories or items. Studies at this scale could be as small as a continent and as large as the entire planet.
• Local—pertaining to or characterised by place, or position in space; pertaining to or affecting a particular part or parts of a system or object. Studies at this scale could be as small as a hill, slope or beach, or as large as a city or sub-catchment area.
• National—belonging to a nation of people bound by a common political unit or historical community with cultural ties. Studies at this scale usually refer to nations; e.g. Australia, Thailand or Canada.
• Regional—pertaining to a region that goes beyond the local; an area of space considered to posses certain characteristics or features that give it a measure of unity from the surrounding area. Regional studies might be as small as the biophysical units of Queensland, Queensland itself, or as large as the economic area of Oceania.

Composite classes

The degree of flexibility of delivery and choice of course content through the selection of case studies provides opportunities for teachers to develop a course of study to cater for combined Year 11 and 12 classes, combined campuses or other modes of delivery. The multi-level nature of such classes can prove advantageous to the teaching and learning process in these ways:

• it provides opportunities for peer teaching and for team work
• it allows teachers to maximise the flexibility of the syllabus in that core and elective units may be taught in any order
• it provides opportunities for a mix of multi-level group work, or for independent work
• learning experiences and assessment items can be structured to allow both Year 11 and Year 12 students to consider the key questions and key ideas at the level appropriate to the needs of students within each year level
• within the one core or elective unit, teachers are able to select case studies or develop the key questions at different levels of complexity to suit the needs of Year 11 and of Year 12 students.

6.1 Key questions and the geographical inquiry

Geographers seek to develop more than knowledge and understanding about the earth and its use by humans. They also seek to explain, analyse, compare, contrast, evaluate and make decisions about improvements for current and future use. This process of geographical inquiry takes place as geographers answer four key questions:

1. What and where are the issues or patterns being studied?

2. How and why are they there?

3. What are their impacts or consequences?

4. What is being and could be done?

6.2 Learning experiences checklist

The following checklist should be considered when learning experiences that might be useful for a geographical inquiry are being developed.

Throughout the geographical inquiry undertaken for each of the core and elective units for this course students will undertake a variety of learning experiences. Table 1 illustrates some examples of possible learning experiences that might be used when dealing with each of the key questions during the inquiry. It is important to note that some learning experiences are applicable to more than one key question.

It is expected that throughout the course of study students progressively develop the ability to undertake independently the study of the four inquiry questions. The development of learning experiences related to the key questions for each core and elective unit will allow students to develop the five general objectives for Geography:

• knowledge
• analytical processes
• decision-making processes
• research and communication processes
• affective.

For each of the core units in this syllabus there are sample learning experiences that will be useful for the exploration of each of the key questions identified. It is through these learning experiences that students will develop the key ideas suggested for each unit.

In developing learning experiences, teachers have ample opportunity to incorporate the key competencies, many of which occur naturally in geographical inquiry and field study experiences, especially:

• collecting, analysing and organising information
• communicating ideas and information
• planning and organising activities
• solving problems
• working with others and in teams.

The two remaining key competencies are also important in the development of learning experiences and in the presentation of student work, including assessment:

• using technology
• using mathematical ideas and techniques.

The application of technology, especially computer technology, is becoming increasingly significant in all areas of geographical study, and must be reflected in Geography classrooms.

Section 11 of this syllabus details the types of resources that might be available for teachers and students to use throughout the course of study. The availability of resources may influence the choice of the scale of study for a particular unit.

Field studies are an essential element of any Geography course. Geography teachers should make use of a variety of learning settings including the school grounds and the community, and both local and distant locations.

Field studies are essential for the collection of primary data.

Field studies throughout the course of study should move progressively from teacher-guided activities to situations in which students plan and conduct their own field investigations.

Field studies may be conducted individually or as part of a team.

A minimum of 20 hours (or the equivalent of four school days) must be spent in the field across the two years of a course of study.

Students should become familiar with the assessment techniques used in Geography. Modelling assessment techniques such as practical exercises, stimulus-response essays, reports and non-written responses as learning experiences allows students to develop their skills and gain confidence. Familiarity with assessment terminology and techniques will assist students to undertake formal assessment tasks to the best of their ability.

It is important to acknowledge that the geographical issues and problems that students will study throughout this course will not be solved by individuals. Group work settings provide the opportunities for students to work in teams to deal with specific issues using the geographical inquiry process.

The choice of learning experiences, case study topics and elective units should reflect the interests and abilities of the students undertaking the course. These choices will also be influenced by the expertise, interests and experiences of the class teacher.

Framing learning experiences suitable for the ability of students is very important. Students entering Geography will come from a variety of backgrounds and these have to be catered for through the provision of appropriate learning experiences. Those with very little background in geography will require more detailed instructions and information about basic geographical processes than others.

Technology is a valuable tool that can be used by students and teachers throughout a geographical inquiry. Learning experiences in Geography can use electronic media and computer programs (see section 11). It is important that learning experiences in Geography provide the broadest possible range of opportunities for students to use technology to improve their awareness and competence.

Student enjoyment of their course of study is enhanced when they experience a diversity of places and scales within the case studies selected for study. Such diversity ensures that no one place, scale, or perspective is over-represented in a course of study.

Theme 1: Managing the natural environment

This theme introduces students to physical studies in geography. The theme explores the relationships of people with the natural environment. The theme draws on studies in climatology, geomorphology, hydrology and biogeography.

The actions of people have an impact on the physical environment. These actions may or may not stem from management decisions. The core units illustrate the importance of understanding the operations of the natural environment, to mitigate hazards and manage catchments. The elective unit(s) may explore other examples of issues related to the management of natural environments.

The understanding of natural environment management encourages students to consider the links that exist between all components of the natural environment and the responsibilities this places on all people.

The geographical study of natural hazards is a multidisciplinary one. It draws on ideas from geomorphology, climatology, psychology, economics, sociology and engineering. Geography’s special contribution to the study of natural hazards lies in its focus on synthesising ideas from the natural and social sciences to produce a comprehensive explanation of the causes and effects of natural hazards and detailed plans to minimise loss of life and damage to property.

This unit provides a focus for the study of a range of concepts and processes in physical geography and of the social processes that influence human responses to the physical environment.

The study of this unit should provide students with a broad understanding of the natural and social processes involved in the geographical study of natural hazards at a general level.

The unit should be illustrated by case studies of the questions, issues and problems associated with hazards that occur regularly at the following two scales:

• local or national, e.g. Newcastle, Australia
• regional, e.g. Asia-Pacific.

• Natural hazards are a potential source of harm or damage resulting from the forces of nature and occur where decisions have been made to locate human activities in areas where extreme physical events also occur.
• Extreme physical events are geographical processes which may be caused by geological processes inside the earth (e.g. earthquakes) or on the geomorphological surface of the earth (e.g. landslides), and atmospheric and meteorological processes (e.g. tropical cyclones), or some combination of these (e.g. floods or bushfires).
• Geophysical processes and associated hazardous events may be described by indicators such as their speed of onset, magnitude, duration, spatial extent and frequency. These indicators help determine the severity of the damage caused.
• Many human factors influence the severity of the impact of natural hazards including population density, level of development, degree of preparedness, and the speed and effectiveness of relief and reconstruction services.
• Human activities of various kinds (e.g. overstocking, deforestation, dam construction) can intensify the onset and effect of ‘natural’ hazards.
• The levels of economic damage caused by natural hazards tend to be worse in economically developed countries whereas the levels of loss of human life tend to be more severe in less economically developed countries.
• Human perceptions and social, cultural, economic and political structures interact to determine how individuals and communities will interpret and respond to the threat, the occurrence, and the effects of natural hazards.
• Action is necessary on local, national and international scales to plan ways of predicting the onset of natural hazards, preventing them or mitigating their effects, and developing places for relief and reconstruction.

• Select and record relevant information (summarise and note-make, note-take) from expository teaching, print sources, audiovisual and computer technologies, maps and photographic records to describe and define hazard types and their location.
• Map from primary data sources including field surveys and interview where possible, to identify the relationships between the occurrence, types and impacts of natural hazards.
• Construct a sequence wheel to demonstrate the complex impacts of a natural hazard.
• Gather and interpret data from media reports relating to natural hazards to analysis critically treatment given a hazard event and its impacts.
• Use technology such as CD–ROM, computer simulations and websites to analyse hazard processes and impacts.
• Research from the Internet to track the progress of a hazard (e.g. track a flood or cyclone’s course from Bureau of Meteorology websites).
• Draw a hazard profile from statistical data to predict the severity of impacts.
• Interview and read accounts of those who have experienced hazards (e.g. SES personnel, local government employees, Bureau of Meteorology officers, residents) to appreciate the severity of impacts and alternative response strategies.
• As part of a group, role-play community contributors and decision makers to identify and evaluate future responses to a natural hazard and alternative strategies.
• Facilitate classroom discussion to evaluate disaster response strategies of governments and the SES (e.g. through techniques such as playing the devil’s advocate, Socratic questioning, hypothetical scenarios) and so develop critical listening skills.
• Write letters to decision makers using the results of classroom inquiry to enhance student understanding of democratic processes and citizenship.
• Design a web page about hazards, their potential impacts and effective community response strategies using the results of classroom learning to communicate and present information effectively.

The geographical study of catchments is a multidisciplinary one, drawing on ideas from geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, economics and sociology. Geography’s special contribution to the study of catchments lies in its focus on synthesising ideas from the physical and social sciences to produce a comprehensive explanation of the health of a catchment. These explanations can help in the development of catchment management plans and biodiversity conservation.

This unit provides a focus for the study of a range of concepts and processes in physical and human geography.

The study of this unit should provide students with an awareness of catchment environments generally, including case studies illustrating the interrelationships within catchments and management strategies to ensure their sustainable and balanced use.

The unit should be illustrated by case studies representing the following two scales:

• local, e.g. local catchment or sub-catchment
• regional, e.g. the Murray Darling Basin, the Lake Eyre basin, or one of Queensland’s catchments.

Learning experiences based on this unit should involve students in the active investigation of the key questions.

• River catchments are geographic units that vary in size and complexity of characteristics.
• Elements of catchments can be mapped and quantified. These include topography, drainage patterns, geology, vegetation cover, rainfall, soil types, land use, settlement patterns.
• Land and water resources are basic and interactive components of natural ecosystems within catchments.
• River catchments are continuously changing in response to natural processes and human activity.
• Changes within the catchment affect the natural systems and the social and economic systems of people living within the catchment.
• People make short-term responses to the changes in the catchment, such as tree planting, damming, fencing, catchment monitoring and flood mitigation.
• Longer-term responses require planning and coordinated action through the informed action of individual users and managers of resources in order to achieve the sustainability of and balance between economic development and conservation of land and water resources.
• Individuals should take opportunities to contribute to the resolution of catchment management issues through participation in community groups.

• Select and record relevant information (summarise and note-make, note-take) from expository teaching, print sources, audiovisual and computer technologies, maps and photographic records to describe and define catchments and their elements.
• Illustrate data in diagrammatic, graphic, photographic and cartographic formats gathered from primary and secondary sources to identify geographic processes and patterns relating to catchments.
• Use GIS, aerial photographs and satellite imagery to analyse the relationships existing within catchments between the physical and human elements.
• Read and interpret data sources such as topographic maps, aerial photographs and satellite imagery to assess the impacts of human activity and the extent of changes over time in a catchment area.
• Listen to and question catchment management, Waterwatch, Bushcare, Landcare conservation group, and local government representatives to appreciate catchment issues at a local scale.
• Search the internet for catchment groups, local government, state agencies and non-government organisations to identify issues and responses in local areas.
• Gather and record information from the field—observation, sketching, plotting, calculation, measurement using field equipment—to identify catchment patterns, processes, impacts and current issues.
• Participate, as part of a school team, in a monitoring program to collect primary data about catchment health (e.g. Saltwatch, Pasture Watch, Waterwatch).
• Role-play stakeholders, and debate catchment issues in groups to gain an appreciation of their interests in and the role of negotiation in management responses.
• Participate in a woolley thinking activity where students take on stakeholders in a catchment to explore relationships and analyse impacts.
• Discuss catchment management issues using a set of criteria to understand and apply integrated catchment management principles.
• Review an existing catchment management plan or part thereof to highlight the complexity of issues associated with management in terms of impacts and alternative strategies.
• Prepare an action plan for the local catchment (either individually or in a team) to report inquiry findings and make recommendations for improvement.
• Present an action plan using suitable technology (e.g. Powerpoint presentation, oral delivery) to a local community catchment coordinating group.
• Design a web page to raise awareness levels and community involvement in a catchment management issue.

The choice of elective units is entirely at the discretion of the school, subject to resource availability, student interest, and other local conditions. The elective unit for a semester should relate to the theme for the semester. Provisions regarding the number and role of elective units is described in section 5. The following suggestions are intended to indicate case studies that might be appropriate for student geographical investigation.

There is some overlap with possible elective topics from other themes, to illustrate how a topic may be adapted to reflect different themes. The list is neither finite nor compulsory:

• minimising blue-green algae in your local catchment
• constructing artificial wetlands in urban areas
• managing acid sulfate soils in Queensland coastal areas
• conserving water through water-wise practices in your school
• investigating current or emerging issues and future scenarios in managing the natural environment.

Theme 2: People and development

This theme introduces students to studies in economic and social development geography. The theme focuses on issues related to the variations in living conditions that exist within and between peoples from different regions and countries and the factors that underlie these differences. This theme draws on studies in other areas such as physical, historical, welfare and political studies.

The core units provide students with a knowledge of the elements and patterns of variation in development, and a deeper understanding of the complex relationships behind the production and distribution of a fundamental human need—food. The elective units may explore other examples of issues that demonstrate differences in development.

The understanding of development issues encourages students to consider the way they perceive other groups in society and challenges them to examine the components of a rapidly changing global economy.

The geographical study of development includes concepts drawn from economics, sociology, politics, and cultural and environmental studies. Geography’s contribution to the study of development issues lies in its focus on synthesising a number of concepts such as human wellbeing, social justice and equity, and ecological sustainability. It requires the establishment of criteria to evaluate the allocation of resources and to determine the resulting patterns.

This unit provides a focus for understanding the changing pattern of global development and a consideration of the factors that cause variation in this pattern. It allows consideration of the impact of those variations and the ways that resulting inequities can be dealt with.

The study of this unit should be illustrated by case studies representing the following two scales:

• global
• regional.

Learning experiences based on this unit should involve students in the active investigation of the key questions.

• Resources are distributed unevenly over the earth’s surface.
• Human (social) resources can be as important as natural (physical) resources in determining the nature and extent of economic and human development.
• Development results from the interaction between social, cultural and natural resources of a region.
• Development is a complex concept that includes economic, social, cultural, political, physical and environmental components.
• Development (economic or human) is often imposed or opposed by interest groups.
• Contrasts in development between places are reflected in variable standards of living and levels of social wellbeing.
• Contrasts in levels of economic and human development are a reflection of Brundtland’s idea that the ‘Earth is one but the world is not.’
• Terminology used to categorise patterns of development has changed over time and continues to do so reflecting the world’s recent historical path from a colonial era to one of globalisation (e.g. Third World, North–South, LDCs, NICs).
• Past and current political decisions about resource allocation resulted in varying patterns of development and reflect the values, goals and sources of power of particular individuals, groups (elites, companies, agencies) and social systems.
• Changes in the nature and extent of development in one area has an impact on environments and cultures in other parts of the world (e.g. social stability, employment) thus reflecting the dynamic character of the development process.
• Sustainable development relies on resource usage and allocation principles that mesh economic efficiency, social justice and ecological responsibility.
• New models of development are emerging in ‘the South’ that are community based and energised by grass-roots support rather than being government-driven.
• International organisations (governmental, transnationals, NGOs) affect the path to and pace of development through a range of mechanisms (e.g. trade, aid, diplomacy, treaties, historical links, investment).

• Select and record information (summarise and note-make, note-take) from expository teaching, print resources, audiovisual and computer technologies, maps and photographic records to describe and define key concepts relating to ‘development’ (e.g. standard of living, quality of life, sustainability).
• Gather and record data from websites, computer databases and print media to identify development patterns and trends (changes over time).
• Read choropleth maps from atlases and texts to distinguish and describe spatial patterns of development indicators.
• Draw choropleth maps using sets of primary data variables to show patterns of human development and, in turn, highlight anomalies therein.
• Compare definitions of ‘development’ from ‘expert’ opinion to identify value positions and biases underpinning different concepts of development.
• Construct scattergraphs of development indicators (using correct mathematical techniques) drawn from primary data sources to show the extent of association existing between indicators.
• Calculate Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients using primary data and formulae to establish and assess relationships between development indicators.
• Compare patterns of development indicators and natural resource distribution from atlases and/or student mapping, graphing and calculation to show relationships between the physical world and human development.
• Research information from print material, electronic media and the Internet, to analyse development issues (e.g. colonial legacy of nations of ‘the South’, the economic substructure of nations in ‘the South’, transnational activity).
• Construct a consequences wheel using class-based discussions and information gathered from research activities to show the complexity and scale of impacts of development issues.
• Design an ‘index of development’ using primary statistical data to show an appreciation of the limitations of certain indicators and the relative strength of others.
• Role-play a range of the stakeholders using a current development issue to understand the complexity of positions held, value positions and alternatives.
• Investigate issues such as ‘trade versus aid’ using a debate approach to assess the validity of alternative strategies in the global development debate.
• Solve a problem in teams using hypothetical scenarios to enhance the skills of listening, questioning, argument, negotiation, oral reporting, group presenting, and responding to questions.

The geographical study of global food production is multidisciplinary, drawing concepts from economics, agricultural sciences and studies of development. A geographical approach to the issue requires an understanding of the allocation of natural and human resources for food production. This occurs within the context of social and political systems. In this context sustainable strategies can be suggested to alleviate imbalance.

This unit provides a focus for the study of a range of physical patterns and social processes that underlie the global patterns of food production and consumption. It encourages the development and critique of strategies to deal with the issue.

The study of this unit should provide students with the opportunity to draw links between local, regional and global patterns. The interrelationships amongst the scales of study cannot be ignored because of the growth of the global economy, in this case demonstrated by the development of the global supermarket.

This unit should be illustrated by case studies representing the following two scales:

• national or regional
• link between scales.

Learning experiences based on this unit should involve students in the active investigation of the key questions.

• A key element of food production is agricultural systems. Such systems involve inputs to the land and a series of processes, to generate a range of outputs.
• Economic, social, political and physical factors affect the nature of the inputs, processes and outputs in agricultural systems and, in turn, produce variation in the pattern of the production, distribution and consumption of food.
• Significant numbers of people in both ‘the North’ and ‘the South’ experience starvation and malnutrition either on an ongoing basis or as crisis events (e.g. famines).
• Colonial powers from ‘the North’ created dual economies in the agricultural sectors of nations of ‘the South’ whereby traditional farming practices were replaced by commercial systems (e.g. cash cropping, plantation agriculture).
• Processes of globalisation have led to the emergence of the ‘global supermarket’ concept.
• ‘Green Revolutions’ have been accompanied by increasing activity of agribusiness from ‘the North’ in the economic, political and social systems of ‘the South’.
• Export crop production in ‘the South’ has increased at the expense of domestic production, providing a source of foreign exchange but also opening nations of ‘the South’ to the impacts of economic adjustment (e.g. commodity price changes, gluts) and hazards (e.g. climate change, disease).
• ‘Green Revolutions’ have involved transfer of technologies from ‘the North’ to ‘the South’, with predictable results (e.g. higher yields) and unintended consequences (e.g. environmental degradation).
• Increases in food production in ‘the South’ has not been accompanied by increases in domestic food consumption due to a range of factors: economic (e.g. export crops as a source of foreign exchange), social (e.g. population increase reduces per capita food availability) and political (e.g. debt, trade-aid debates, globalisation).
• Inadequate food supply has an impact on other aspects of development including health, education and employment, and contributes to cycles of economic and human poverty.
• Strategies to feed the world’s people more equitably and sustainably must consider issues of global trade, land reform, social reform, environmental degradation and waste, and adoption of appropriate technologies by peoples in ‘the North’ and ‘the South’.
• New technologies (e.g. genetically modified foodstuffs) may provide some solutions to food demand in both ‘the North’ and ‘the South’, but ethics and values underpinning such a response to the challenge of ‘feeding the world’s people’ need clarification.

• Select and record information (summarise and note-make, note-take) from expository teaching, print sources, audiovisual and computer technologies, maps and photographic records to describe and define key ideas related to food production, distribution and consumption.
• Read and/or draw maps from atlases or statistical data to highlight factors influencing food production and consumption.
• Compare patterns from mapped data to identify relationships between physical and cultural environments affecting food production and consumption (e.g. effects of desertification, soil type and quality, climate change on food output).
• Calculate Spearman rank correlation coefficients from primary data sets to identify critical associations affecting food production, consumption and distribution of food resources.
• Draw diagrams and a range of graphs (e.g. bar, line, pie, scatter) using statistical data to illustrate visually aspects of food availability both spatially and over time.
• Research food production and distribution issues from print material, electronic media and the Internet to reach a broad knowledge and understanding of the range of cultural and physical environment factors affecting current food stocks and supplies, and future trends.
• Gather information as part of a team about ‘feeding the world’s people’ through survey or interview activities to identify common perceptions about the global food situation.
• Discuss the ‘food business’ by using media images to analyse critically food issues and agricultural challenges across the globe.
• Draw a consequences wheel from primary data and in-class discussion to show the complexity of impacts relating to food production and consumption.
• Use ‘woolly thinking’ activities to explain the possible associations relationships between ‘the North’ and ‘South’ in food exchange—aid and trade.
• Visit fieldwork locations such as permaculture sites, markets, and aid agencies to appreciate ‘food’ as a business system and alternatives to general practice.
• Use diamond ranking exercises to order the desirability of alternative solutions.
• Role-play stakeholders (individually or in teams) using board games, simulations, or hypotheticals to enhance understanding of current and alternative practice through critical listening, questioning and analysis.
• Design a food management strategy using a problem-solving scenario to practise skills of decision making (i.e. considering alternatives, using criteria, trading-off, rationalising conclusions, argument) and effective communication (oral and visual presentation of the preferred strategy).

The choice of elective units is entirely at the discretion of the school, subject to resource availability, student interest, and other relevant local conditions. The elective unit should relate to the theme for the semester. Provisions regarding the number and role of elective units is described in section 5. The following suggestions are intended to indicate case studies that might be appropriate for student geographical investigation.

There is some overlap with possible elective topics from other themes, to illustrate how a topic may be adapted to reflect different themes. The list is neither finite nor compulsory:

• investigating the impact of a large scale development project such as China’s three-gorges policy
• managing the effects of hazards in developing countries
• comparing the practice of permaculture in developing and developed countries
• investigating the role of women in rural communities
• investigating current and emerging issues and future scenarios in development.

Theme 3: Social environments

This theme introduces students to studies in urban and rural geography. The theme focuses on issues related to the sustainability of urban and rural environments. The theme draws on studies from planning, economics, sociology and ecology.

The core units provide students with an understanding of the variety and complexity of communities from farm to mega-city, and encourage them to examine both the human profile and the structure of settlements. The dynamic nature of settlement is examined within the context of planning. Elective units may explore other issues related to settlement and social environments.

The understanding of issues within social environments encourages students to make better-informed decisions on planning processes within their community.

The geographical study of sustainable communities draws on areas of study such as planning, economics, sociology, health and ecology. Urban and rural communities are significant because they constitute the locations where the majority of people live, work and participate in leisure and recreational activities. Decisions that affect the sustainability of communities are made both by governments and members of the community.

This unit encourages the study of an approach to sustainability that is underpinned by the values of social justice, ecological sustainability and democratic processes.

The study of this unit should provide students with a broad understanding of the concept of urban and rural communities and the particular characteristics of communities of various scales.

The unit should be illustrated by case studies of cities or communities representing the following two scales:

• local
• regional or national.

Learning experiences based on this unit should involve students in the active investigation of the key questions.

• A community is a system of interacting and interdependent social groups within an area. These groups are characterised by patterns of demography, ethnicity, income, family structure, religion, etc.
• Different physical and human factors influence the development of sustainable communities in different parts of the world.
• Distribution of access to social welfare, health care, education, leisure opportunities and personal security may be inequitable in communities.
• Factors which may influence social environments of the future include technology and changed work and leisure practices.
• Communities are settings that are affected by government and community decisions about land use and population density.
• For areas to be sustainable they must be environmentally, economically, politically and culturally just.
• Sustainable communities require people who are willing to participate in the solution of ecological and social problems. Community participation for sustainable social environments differs throughout the world.
• Governments and communities have developed a range of strategies to achieve sustainable environments.

• Select and record information (summarise, note-make, note-take) from expository teaching, print resources, audiovisual and computer technologies, maps and photographic records to describe and define key ideas related to communities of a variety of scales and of a variety of types (e.g. rural, suburban, religious, ethnic).
• Study aerial photographs to establish the physical location of a community.
• As part of a team, survey and/or interview community members about the features and relative ‘health’ of a place and its people.
• Use mental mapping activities to record perceptions about a place—its physical elements and social character.
• Analyse census data and maps of community social patterns (e.g. social atlases) to identify key issues influencing a community’s wellbeing.
• Graph those features of a community critical to its growth and decline, to identify patterns and trends (that is, changes over time).
• Debate reasons for geographical patterns of social wellbeing in terms of a place’s ‘livability’ and the sustainability of its lifestyle.
• Conduct fieldwork activities to identify the extent of decline and renewal within a community, in terms of its physical elements and social structure.
• In groups, use simulation and role-play activities to develop empathy with groups involved in an issue affecting a community’s wellbeing.
• Use computer software to simulate ecological and social issues resulting from planning decisions and so enhance understanding of their complex interplay.
• Analyse movements or projects seeking to develop sustainable social environments in order to define the philosophies, values and aims of such ventures, and establish a set of criteria for measuring the success of such movements.
• Use futures strategies (e.g. cross-impact matrices, futures wheels, decision-making trees, alternative pathways exercises) to analyse government or community decisions affecting urban and rural environments.
• Employ decision-making and problem-solving strategies to identify possible solutions to ecological and social urban problems.
• Collaborate as part of a team using information from field observation and research (e.g. principles of sustainable design as used by local government and other agencies) to design a future community.
• As part of a team, develop action plans for more ecologically sustainable and socially equitable local communities to highlight potential community improvements and present these in written and oral formats to community interest groups.

The geographical study of planning is multidisciplinary. It draws on ideas from physical geography, psychology, economics, sociology, town planning and regional development. A geographical approach to planning lies in its focus on the contribution of all stakeholders, including international organisations, in the process of effective planning, leading to sustainable urban and rural environments.

This unit provides a focus on concepts, processes and roles of planning, and its impact on communities.

The study of this unit should provide students with an awareness of planning concepts and strategies.

The unit should be illustrated by case studies at two of the following three scales:

• local
• regional (e.g. Asia-Pacific)
• global (e.g. major conurbations).

Learning experiences based on this unit involve students in the active investigation of the key questions.

• Planning is a broad concept that incorporates both formal (e.g. government) and informal (e.g. community) planning.
• Regional planning is strategic planning and provides guidance for the future, e.g. SEQ 2000, Wide Bay 2020.
• Changing demographic structures of society influence formal planning at a local government level, e.g. dual occupancy, small-lot housing.
• Local governments regulate land use through zoning. Within each zone there are ‘as of right’ uses, which may be amended. The application for amendment requires consultation with other community members.
• Informal planning at the individual unit level (e.g. house, school) should include attention to criteria such as energy efficiency, solar orientation, and aspect.
• Planning has become very important in contributing to sustainable social environments, and has had positive and negative effects on cities and people across the world.
• The degree to which cities are planned varies and has varied across history; some, such as Brasilia and Canberra, are totally planned, while others are subject to very little planning; e.g. shanty towns and early Australian gold towns.
• The nature of planning will vary according to the scale, from the very specific planning statements for a small scale situation to structured plans and regional development plans for larger scale situations, and also according to who is making and/or influencing decisions.
• Conflict may arise among the participants in planning, such as, at the local level, between town planners, local government and community groups; or within communities, e.g. in a school.
• Historically there was little public consultation by planners. There is now an increasing trend to consultation.
• People need to be more informed and proactive agents in the planning process.

• Select and record information (summarise, note-make, note-take) from expository teaching, print resources, audiovisual and computer technologies, maps and photographic records to describe and define key ideas related to spatial planning at a variety of scales (e.g. school, street, neighbourhood, suburb, city, region, nation).
• Analyse data to explain the processes shaping patterns of land use in an urban area and the global concentration of populations over time (e.g. compare sets of photographs showing change through time, photograph features of a landscape or streetscape to show change).
• Conduct group and individual fieldwork activities (observation, survey, interview) to investigate planning issues in the local area (e.g. the impact of ‘gentrification’ and renewal on inner-city physical and social environments).
• Access Geographic Information Systems to identify relationships among the variety of factors affecting planning processes, decisions and outcomes.
• Question urban planners about their role and responsibilities in the planning process to develop interviewing skills (questioning, listening, oracy).
• Visit a town planning centre to observe processes of planning and develop an appreciation of the range of influences and implications of planning.
• Working as a team, apply planning principles and a planning process to a location within a school’s physical environment with a view to site redevelopment.
• Working as a team, gather and record data to identify the impact of past planning processes and to propose economically viable, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable alternatives for future development of a site.
• Working as a team, design an action plan in response to a local planning issue (e.g. shopping precinct redevelopment, traffic flow, neighbourhood renewal).
• Analyse an existing strategic plan to decide where to live, based on the positive and negative impacts of planning.
• Inspect strategic town plans for future development of a local area or city to identify guiding philosophies, values and agendas and to enhance awareness of the role of democratic processes and civic responsibilities.
• As a member of a team, role-play interest groups in a scenario or simulation of a local area issue (e.g. proposal for rezoning) to understand the competing claims of stakeholders, the role of compromise and negotiation and to develop skills of oracy.
• Present an action plan to a community group or government agency and so develop oral communication skills with technological supports.

The choice of elective units is entirely at the discretion of the school, subject to resource availability, student interest, and other relevant local conditions. The elective unit for the semester should relate to the theme for the semester. Provisions regarding the number and role of elective units is described in section 5. The following suggestions are intended to indicate case studies that might be appropriate for student geographical investigation.

There is some overlap with possible elective topics from other themes, to illustrate how a topic may be adapted to reflect different themes.The list is neither finite nor compulsory:

• investigating the uses of recycled water overseas
• minimising the impacts of rural decline on people and communities
• investigating transportation planning alternatives to ensure that essential qualities of life are not destroyed in southeast Queensland
• investigating the changing role of women in rural communities
• investigating current and emerging issues, and future scenarios in social environments.

Theme 4: Resources and environment

This theme introduces students to studies in environmental geography. The theme focuses on issues related to human use of and reliance on the environment. The theme draws on studies in many areas, including physical, economic and political studies.

The complex nature of this relationship is explored in the core units. One of the units explores the broad physical relationships that underpin all interactions within the environment, particularly on a regional or global scale. The other unit examines the management of resources within the environment, often on a local scale. Elective units may explore other issues related to resources and environmental management.

The understanding of environmental issues encourages students to consider the cultural perceptions of resources and environments and the role of political entities in the management of and decision making about these environments.

The geographical study of physical systems requires an understanding of the elements of the world’s main systems and associated patterns. It looks at the processes that affect the systems and the resulting changes that can occur. Change, as well as impacting on these physical systems, has implications for the nature and pattern of human activities in relation to social, economic and political responses. The consequences of the interactions should be explained and understood.

This unit provides a focus for the study of a range of topics fundamental to physical geography and their implications for human activities and future management.

The study of this unit should provide students with the opportunity to understand how people live within physical systems.

The unit should be illustrated by case studies at the following two scales:

• global
• regional.

Learning experiences based on this unit involve students in the active investigation of the key questions.

• The physical environment consists of elements that can be mapped and quantified. Geographical understanding of physical systems and their impacts on human activity is changing and developing rapidly.
• The world’s physical environment is composed of systems—atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere—that are not separate entities but interact upon each other and have a profound effect on human existence. The systems are dynamic, constantly changing in response to natural processes and human activity.
• The systems which make up the world’s physical environment may be identified as being either open or closed systems They include inputs, outputs, feedback loops and linkages that may involve other systems, natural and human.
• Systems within the physical environment operate in cycles. Some elements of the physical environment may be stable for long periods of time and then be affected by processes that cause rapid change and adjustment.
• Elements of physical systems may be fragile or resilient, depending on the simplicity or complexity of the system.
• Human social, economic and political activity has an effect on physical systems, just as physical systems have an effect on human activities.
• The physical environment does not recognise political and economic boundaries.
• Long-term management of human interaction with the physical environment requires planning and coordinated action through the informed participation of individuals, groups and governments.

• Select and record relevant information (summarise, note-make, note-take) from expository teaching, print sources, audiovisual and computer technologies, maps and photographic records to describe and define physical systems and their patterns.
• View audiovisual technologies (video, CD–ROM) to stimulate interest in and an appreciation of the elements of physical environments.
• Illustrate data in diagrammatic, graphic, photographic and cartographic formats gathered from primary and secondary sources to identify geographic processes and patterns relating to physical environments.
• Use Geographical Information Systems, aerial photographs and satellite imagery to analyse the relationships existing within systems between the physical and human elements.
• Read and interpret data sources such as topographic maps, aerial photographs and satellite imagery to assess the impacts of human activity and the extent of changes through time in a physical system.
• Listen to and question stakeholders at a local scale to identify and appreciate the complexities of physical management issues.
• Gather and record information from the field—observation, sketching, plotting, calculation, measurement using field equipment—to identify physical patterns, processes, impacts and current issues.
• Role-play stakeholders and debate issues affecting the physical environment to gain an understanding of interest groups and the role of humans in responding to physical environment management issues.
• Construct a consequences wheel to analyse the complex impacts of physical and human change (e.g. immediate, short term, medium term, long range).
• Predict the consequences of the operation of a physical system through simulation and scenario development to plan effective response strategies.
• Use diamond-ranking exercises to order the desirability of alternative plans or strategies to manage the physical environment sustainably.
• Interview government and non-government organisation representatives about managing the physical environment sustainably.
• Design, enact and evaluate a personal action plan so as to respond to physical environment management issues at a personal level.

The geographical study of resource management requires an understanding of the nature of the ecosystem or resource system and the pattern of human activities, values and decision-making processes. The unit encourages students to assess the short-term and long-term implications for people and environments of alternative proposals, and to evaluate management decisions that are made.

This unit allows students to develop an understanding of the characteristics and functioning of ecosystems or resource systems used as case studies and an appreciation of the values and decision-making processes involved in resolving controversies. The study should also provide opportunities to clarify resource management issues and explore future options.

The study of this unit should provide students with awareness of the principles of resource management. The unit should be illustrated by case studies at the following two scales:

• local
• regional.

Learning experiences based on this unit involve students in the active investigation of the key questions.

• The concept of a resource varies over time and between different societies.
• The perceived value of a resource and of the development opportunities it presents may change considerably over time owing to changes in cultural values of the dominant groups within a society.
• Although the processes of resource development can bring social and economic benefits, human-induced environmental change can also cause harmful impacts on the natural environment and may radically alter the lifestyles and quality of life of some people.
• Controversy may arise when conflicting demands are made on the same resource.
• Proposals and decisions about the use of an ecosystem or resource depend on the goals, cultural values, technologies and sources of power of particular groups of people and social systems.
• Resource management issues are often difficult to resolve, especially when there are conflicting social, economic and political values within a society and there may be changes in these values over time.
• Governments at all levels play a major role in mediating between groups with conflicting value positions and in managing disputes through a range of legislative and planning processes.
• Political boundaries sometimes prove to be constraints on the resolution of resource problems, conflicts and issues.
• Individuals and groups have an important proactive role to play in influencing decision makers and participating in wise management of resources.

• Select and record relevant information (summarise, note-make, note-take) from expository teaching, print sources, audiovisual and computer technologies, maps and photographic records to describe and define ‘resources’ and investigate the background to environmental management issues.
• Map the local, national and/or global distribution of a resource or group of resources to distinguish spatial patterns.
• Analyse maps and photographs to identify key elements of the environmental systems (physical and social) operating in a place.
• Survey attitudes (student, community) towards particular environmental issues to establish perceptions about resources, environments and management.
• Undertake field studies as part of a team—involving observation, sketching, measurement and calculation activities using equipment, plotting, interviewing, survey techniques—to understand interactions in and between physical and social systems and modifications brought by human action.
• Read text, maps and photographic evidence to identify the social, economic and political goals and values operating in different social systems.
• Compare and contrast values underlying environmental controversies to analyse the contexts of resource management issues.
• Use computer simulations to investigate the impacts of human decisions on natural and social environments and understand these in terms of time and scale.
• Compare similar natural systems in which different management approaches have produced contrasting environments to appreciate the range of strategies brought to resource management over time because of changing values and technologies.
• As part of a team, plan, research and write an environmental impact assessment (EIA) based on primary data to highlight the relationships between different interest groups and impacts.
• Evaluate an EIA on a proposed development to test its comprehensiveness and to locate the values which influence its findings and recommendations.
• Undertake decision-making and problem-solving exercises for students to provide interpretations of, and solutions to, environmental controversies and to develop skills of argument, questioning, negotiation, critical listening and oracy.
• Working in groups, form committees of inquiry that mirror the processes involved in investigating environmental issues and to develop skills of oral and visual presentation of information and argument.
• Actively involve students in local environmental protection and/or improvement projects to enhance students’ appreciation of their potential civic roles and the common good.

The choice of elective units is entirely at the discretion of the school, subject to resource availability, student interest, and other relevant local conditions. The elective unit for a semester should relate to the theme for the semester. Provisions regarding the number and role of elective units is described in section 5. The following suggestions are intended to indicate case studies that might be appropriate for student geographical investigation.

There is some overlap with possible elective topics from other themes, to illustrate how a topic may be adapted to reflect different themes. The list is neither finite nor compulsory:

• planning for the effect of climate change on canal developments
• managing nature-based recreation on one of the large sand islands in Queensland
• conserving water through water-wise practices in your school
• managing the maintenance of biodiversity in arid ares, reefs or wetlands
• investigating current and emerging issues, and future scenarios in the management of resources and the environment.

8.1 Principles of assessment

A judgment of global achievement is made at exit from the course of study. This will be made after two years for most senior Geography students but may be made after one, two or three semesters for others. The judgment is made in terms of the criteria for exit levels of achievement as stated in the work program and the syllabus.

The Board’s policy on exit assessment requires consideration to be given to the following principles when devising an exit assessment program These principles should be considered together and not individually in the development of an assessment program.

The exit assessment program must include achievement in the mandatory aspects of the syllabus. In senior Geography, these consist of the knowledge, analytical processes, decision-making processes, and research and communication objectives, and the key questions and key ideas of each core unit. Achievement in these must be reflected in the exit level of achievement.

In addition to the mandatory aspects of the syllabus, the work program may also contain syllabus areas to which the school has given special emphasis for reasons of school philosophy or availability of resources. The syllabus also provides schools with the freedom to add to or extend the course of study outlined in the syllabus. The results from both mandatory and significant areas must be combined to determine a student’s exit level of achievement, in accordance with the principles of ‘fullest and latest’ as stated below.

The exit assessment program must ensure a balance over the course of study as a whole. Within a two-year course in Geography, it is necessary to establish a balance in the areas of objectives, assessment techniques and conditions of implementation. It is not necessary for this balance to be maintained with an assessment instrument or within a semester.

The judgment of global achievement must be based on the fullest and latest information about student achievement. By considering all significant and mandatory aspects of the course, a full picture of student performance can be obtained. In Year 11 and year 12 Geography, attention must be paid to the knowledge objectives in each of the core units because of the discrete nature of the content. Process and skill objectives, however, are met developmentally throughout the course. Therefore, information on student achievement in these areas should be selectively updated throughout the course.

Selective updating refers to data recorded on a profile about student performance in the developmental aspects of the course. Information on student achievement in these areas should be selectively updated throughout the course. Formal assessment in Year 11, except for those components not to be repeated or developed in Year 12, should become formative through the application of selective updating.

Levels of achievement must be arrived at by means of continuous assessment and not be based on a student’s response to a single measurement made at the end of a course. The nature of the tasks/assessment techniques will depend on the student learning experiences used in the course of study.

Information about student performance undertaken periodically through the course is recorded to develop a student profile, The major purpose of the profile is to document teacher judgments for students, parents and review panels.

8.2 Exit criteria

The following criteria must be used to make judgments about each student’s level of achievement at exit from the course of study. The exit criteria reflect the general objectives of the course and should be interpreted accordingly.

Knowledge refers to the ability to recall learned factual material in text and spatial forms. The material may include facts, concepts, key ideas, theories and explanations.

Analytical processes involve students in breaking material into its component parts so that they can identify trends, similarities, differences and patterns.

Analytical processes involve a number of thinking processes which are investigative and recursive in nature and which may also occur simultaneously as students gather and record their information by:

• breaking the information into parts; e.g. identifying the elements of a pattern or the steps in a process
• understanding the meaning of information by transforming, interpreting or extrapolating
• establishing the validity and reliability of information
• identifying relationships of different complexity
• suggesting causes for some of the relationships
• identifying anomalies in the information.

Decision making requires students to select between valid alternatives and make judgments supported by evidence. These processes include:

• evaluating alternative proposals, strategies, solutions or plans
• applying appropriate criteria
• making a judgment/decision about the alternatives
• justifying the decision with reasoned and logical arguments.

Research involves the ability to:

• design a research plan relevant to the purpose
• gather and record information from a variety of sources and settings
• organise information prior to analysis and decision making
• reference and acknowledge sources.

Communication skills involve the ability to:

• use an appropriate format when presenting the results of learning experiences
• use clear, concise expression and language conventions relating to grammar, spelling and punctuation
• integrate, where appropriate, the use of maps, diagrams, statistics and referencing, adhering to geographic conventions.

8.3 Assessment techniques

Assessment techniques in Geography are designed to facilitate the development of processes and skills over a two-year course of study.

The assessment program that is developed by the school should be evaluated to ensure that:

• the assessment instruments are varied and performed under a variety of conditions
• the assessment tasks are valid measures of the exit criteria
• the program provides students with the opportunity to undertake instruments in a formative context
• consideration has been given to the potential impact of gender, ethnicity, disability or socioeconomic circumstances on student performance in the selection and development of assessment instruments.

This technique requires precise answers and allows little variation in student responses when knowledge of core units is being assessed. Short-response tests may include some of the following:

• paragraph responses
• sentence responses
• definitions of terms
• questions requiring single-word answers
• multiple-choice questions.

Short-response tests that test analytical processes may require responses to stimuli such as cartoons, statistical data, written passages, maps and photographs.

This technique has three components:

• interpreting information, such as statistics, maps, photographs, images, graphs
• manipulating this information to produce graphic or cartographic presentations, such as choropleth maps, population pyramids, cross-sections, scatter graphs
• using analytical and/or decision-making processes to identify and resolve issues arising from the components above.

Practical exercises also provide opportunities for the manipulation of computer-generated maps and data, and geographical information systems. They also provide opportunities for a variety of presentations and formats. If commercial computer programs, CD–ROM and other electronic sources are used, care should be taken to ensure that they allow for genuine student data manipulation, analysis and decision making. Software programs that do not allow individual student interaction and manipulation will not provide sufficient opportunities for demonstration of student abilities as described in the exit standards and are therefore more suited to learning experiences than to assessment.

Stimulus-response essays and reports are included under this heading.

These essays are responses (of approximately 500 words by Year 12) to a question or series of questions structured to require students to analyse stimulus materials and use decision-making processes. Where appropriate, answers should be illustrated by maps and diagrams and supported by data.

This technique requires a response to investigations or inquiries and recourse to primary sources such as maps, statistics (such as ABS statistics) and information gathered in the field. In a report, secondary sources consulted by library research should be less important than primary sources.

A report requires students to show their ability to design and implement a research plan, to gather data and to demonstrate analytical and decision-making processes.

A report uses subsections and headings, observes formal conventions and should be 600–1000 words in length. Support materials (maps, tables, diagrams) and a correctly referenced bibliography are essential components of all reports. Care should be taken to ensure that the student is the author, and to include accurate referencing of all source materials, in any report. Refer to section 8.3.1 for guidelines.

Reports can be generated in many ways and may use a variety of presentation methods, either singly or in combination. For example, a report may be presented as a magazine or feature article, as long as report conventions are adhered to. Reports may also consist of some written material, some material that is generated from software programs, and/or some material which is itself submitted electronically, such as a website.

Non-written responses are analytical, persuasive, and/or argumentative expositions.

Examples of non-written responses include:

• a seminar of 10–15 minutes arising from an inquiry. It is interactive in nature and may use both primary and secondary data
• an oral presentation, simulation or role-play, followed by a question-and-answer session in which the presenter(s) is/are required to defend positions taken about issues
• dramatisations followed by a session in which performers are required to extrapolate and defend positions in response to audience questions
• presentations involving a variety of audio and/or visual media technology (including computer technology) and requiring audience participation and reaction.

The examples are suggestions only and do not exclude other possibilities for non-written presentations.

When a non-written response is used for exit assessment, written, audiovisual or electronic support material used for the presentation must be included in the folio. Schools may also elect to submit video evidence of practical tasks. Video evidence is used to illustrate the standard of student performance. It should illustrate the typical A and C standards across the relevant criteria, rather than the performance of individual student performances as submitted for monitoring or verification.

The following guidelines are recommended for student responses which feature multimedia or Internet resources, or which employ multimedia in their presentation:

• teachers should monitor the development of the student response by seeing plans and drafts of student work
• students should document the development of the response, including the development of responses on disk, development of graphics, hypertext links, etc.
• students must acknowledge all sources, including any sources downloaded or copied from software, and websites, using the following website citation system:
• name of author (if known—if not, use publisher’s name)
• publishing date
• type of source (e.g. website, cd–rom) in brackets
• name of ‘article’, if any
• main website address
• date of last page update, with updated written before the date
• repeat publisher and add town or country
• teachers may ask students to demonstrate their understanding of the task during preparation or at the time the response is submitted.

8.4 Assessment techniques and exit criteria

The exit criteria as stated in the syllabus must be used in the construction of assessment tasks and correction of student responses. Table 10 shows the most appropriate techniques for measuring student performance on the various criteria.

8.5 Developing an exit assessment plan

A school must submit an exit assessment plan in its work program. This plan must:

• identify the assessment techniques to be used (see 8.3)
• show the relationship between assessment techniques and exit criteria (see 8.4)
• incorporate the principles of exit assessment (see 8.1)
• include all the exit criteria assessed by each mandatory assessment instrument.

The exit assessment plan must include a variety of techniques. In the selection of techniques the following are the mandatory assessment instruments:

• a number of short-response tests
• a stimulus-response essay written under test conditions and based on an unseen question
• a practical exercise done under test conditions
• a report based on primary data.

The exit assessment plan must indicate measurement of student performance on the exit criteria as follows:

• criterion 1: the knowledge components of all core units must be assessed
• criteria 2, 3 and 4: each of these criteria must be assessed twice in both semesters 3 and 4.

The principles of exit assessment have been considered in determining these requirements as per table 11. Note that the requirements apply to the whole of the course, i.e., to exit from Year 12.

8.6 Arriving at exit levels of achievement

Student performances should be recorded on a profile that identifies:

• the four exit criteria
• the semester themes
• the assessment techniques
• performance standards for each of the criteria
• the overall standards for each criterion at either monitoring or verification.

The manner of recording performance should be easily understood by students and teachers.

For certification, schools must decide on the student’s standard on each exit criterion. The exit standards and criteria matrix (table 12) must be used for this purpose. Standards must be representative of the student’s performance on each of the exit criteria as shown in the profile.

Those representative standards are then used to determine the student’s exit level of achievement as follows:

The student must have achieved an A in any three of the exit criteria and no less than a B in the remaining criterion.

The student must have achieved a B in any three of the exit criteria and no less than a C in the remaining criterion.

The student must have achieved a C in any three of the exit criteria and no less than a D in the remaining criterion.

The student must have achieved a D in any three of the exit criteria.

The student does not meet the requirements for Limited Achievement.

8.7 Requirements for verification folios

For certification purposes, schools must submit verification folios of student work to review panels. The profile and verification folios of selected students provide evidence of their performances on all exit criteria and are used to confirm the level of achievement proposed by the school.

In the verification folio requirements for the subject, the minimum and maximum number of assessment instruments are stipulated. Schools must ensure that the verification folios presented in October contain all summative assessment items and corresponding student responses upon which judgments about levels of achievement have been made, up to that point.

The following table, derived from the exit assessment plan, indicates the minimum number of performances in each of the criteria essential for providing evidence of the students’ achievements.

The following techniques used to gather information on student performance must be included in each verification folio:

• a selection of short-response tests
• an extended piece of writing, as defined in section 8.3, completed under test conditions and based on an unseen question
• a practical exercise completed under test conditions—e.g., manipulation of data, graphic/cartographic presentation of data
• report writing based on primary data (including maps) and/or data gathered in the field.

Each verification folio must contain a minimum of six and a maximum of ten instruments

.

A school’s work program is the school’s interpretation of the syllabus. It explains how the school intends to implement the syllabus. The work program that is developed by the school should be subject to the process of evaluation to ensure that:

• the work program adheres to the course requirements of the syllabus but allows for flexibility of interpretation over the accredited period
• the needs, interests and learning styles of the students are catered for
• the sequence and scope of learnings form a cohesive course of study
• the case studies used to illustrate the units are reviewed in terms of their currency and resource availability
• changes in technology are integrated into the students’ learning experiences.

The school’s work program should be a stand-alone document that does not require reference to other documents to be understood. The work program must contain the following components:

This increases the readability of the document. Pages must be numbered.

This outlines a school’s justification for including Geography in its curriculum. It should also describe local characteristics, including teaching and/or learning styles, learning resources and settings particular to the school.

These should be as they are defined in the syllabus.

These should be as they are defined in the syllabus.

This details the forms of language appropriate to Geography and the means by which the school will develop and monitor students’ abilities in the language and communication requirements of the subject. A statement may be included alone, or attached to the section on skill objectives, or as a statement in the Rationale.

This indicates the quantitative processes and skills appropriate to Geography and the means by which the school will develop and monitor students’ abilities in them.

This must express an awareness of and commitment to the principles of educational equity expressed in the syllabus. This may be included in the rationale.

This should show the two-year course of study detailing the planned sequence of themes. The core units should be listed for each theme with possible case studies that show the major scale of study and elective units for at least three of the themes. Planned time allocation in weeks should be included for the units.

Learning experiences chosen should be appropriate to the clientele and resource base and consistent with the general objectives of the syllabus. This section should describe the types of learning experiences that will be undertaken by the school to develop knowledge, analytical and decision-making processes, and research and communication skills. This section may be shown as a table, as shown in section 6, table 1.

This unit should be based on an elective unit. The structure of the unit in the work program should match the structure of core units in the syllabus, with a rationale, a scale of study, the key questions, key ideas and learning experiences. The exemplar assessment instrument in the assessment section should be based on this unit and reflect the key questions, key ideas and learning experiences.

The work program should include:

• a description of assessment techniques to be used
• the conditions of implementation
• the exit criteria associated with such techniques
• an exit assessment plan based upon the principles of exit assessment
• the composition of the verification and exit folios of student work
• the method of arriving at exit as described in the syllabus
• a sample student profile with places for global standards for each criterion at monitoring, verification and exit
• an exemplar assessment instrument.

The exemplar assessment instrument should relate to the exemplar teaching unit which is based on an elective unit. The technique(s) used should complement the learning experiences used in the unit. The cover sheet of the instrument should include:

• school name
• year level, semester 1 to 4, the date
• name of the theme, and of the unit
• type of technique(s)
• criteria and the questions or tasks that they link to
• the method used to relate the results of several questions to a standard for a criterion where it is not obvious.

Equity means fair treatment of all. In developing work programs from this syllabus, schools are urged to consider the most appropriate means of incorporating the following notions of equity.

Schools should provide opportunities for all students to demonstrate what they know and what they can do. All students, therefore, should have equitable access to educational programs and human and material resources. Teachers should ensure that the particular needs of the following groups of students are met: female students; male students; Aboriginal students; Torres Strait Islander students; students from non–English-speaking backgrounds; students with disabilities; students with gifts and talents; geographically isolated students; and students from low socioeconomic backgrounds.

The subject matter chosen should include, where appropriate, the contributions and experiences of all groups of people. Learning contexts and community needs and aspirations should also be considered when selecting subject matter.

In choosing learning experiences teachers should, where possible, introduce and reinforce non-racist, non-sexist, culturally sensitive and unprejudiced attitudes and behaviour. Learning experiences should encourage the participation of students with disabilities and accommodate different learning styles.

It is desirable that the resource materials chosen recognise and value the contributions of both females and males to society and include the social experiences of both sexes. Resource materials should also reflect the cultural diversity within the community and draw from the experiences of the range of cultural groups in the community.

Efforts should be made to identify, investigate and remove barriers to equal opportunity to demonstrate achievement. This may involve finding out about the best ways to meet the special needs, in terms of learning and assessment, of particular students.

The variety of assessment techniques in the work program should allow students of all backgrounds to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a subject in relation to the criteria and standards stated in this syllabus. The syllabus criteria and standards should be applied in the same way to all students.

Teachers may find the following useful for devising an inclusive work program.

• Access and Equity Policy for the Vocational Education and Training System 1998, Department of Training and Industrial Relations.
• A Fair Deal. Equity Guidelines for Developing and Reviewing Educational Resources 1991, Department of Education, Queensland.
• Policy Statement on Special Consideration 1994, Board of Senior Secondary School Studies Queensland.
• Guidelines for Assessment Quality and Equity 1996, Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Certification Authorities, Queensland.
• Language and Equity: A discussion paper for writers of school-based assessment instruments 1995, Board of Senior Secondary School Studies.
• Studying Assessment Practices—A resource for teachers in schools 1995, Board of Senior Secondary School Studies.

The selection of resource material to support a course in senior Geography will be governed by the same local factors that determine the nature of the work units and particular learning experiences chosen. There may or may not be any single student or teacher resource that can be universally applied to a school’s particular program. Most programs will draw upon a number of the resources described below.

In the first instance, both material and human resources of a local community should be used as much as possible in constructing and implementing a senior Geography program.

Local government libraries are a valuable source of information and contacts. Government departments, non-government, and environmental organisations are a source of personnel who are experts in their field and may provide valuable assistance and advice through involvement in school programs. Links with the community improve the credibility of the course within the community.

A number of environmental centres have been set up in a range of localities throughout Queensland and offer information and programs for students and support for teachers.

Many useful teaching strategies are reported in Geographical Education, the national journal of the Australian Geography Teachers’ Association, as well as state Geography Teachers’ Associations’ newsletters and journals, such as the Queensland Geographer.

These journals often contain specific details and information about free materials, teaching kits, worthwhile commercial packages and in-service opportunities for teachers.

Information on specific topics may also be found in general geographical journals. Details of these are contained in listings of periodicals held in most libraries.

CSIRO publications such as Sci-file, Ecos and Rural Research contain articles of direct relevance to this syllabus.

Other publications, for example Australian Natural History and Habitat, provide a ready source of up-to-date information. Commerce and industry groups sometimes circulate periodicals free of charge.

Other useful journals include: Environment, New Internationalist, Ambio, Chain Reaction, Environmental Education and Information, Environmental Science and Technology, Geo, National Geographic, Omega, Omni, Search, Social Education, Technology in Society, The Futurist, The International Journal of Environmental Studies, Australian Geographic, Teaching Geography, Streetwise, Australian Journal of Environmental Education, Journal of Geography, Australian Geographic Studies, Geography Review and Geographical Magazine.

Publications from consumer and conservation organisations provide useful recent information for geographical studies.

Some newspapers carry regular columns and features of value to Geography teachers and students. Local papers can also be a source of useful data.

Continuing television series such as ‘Quantum’ and ‘Beyond 2000’ usually contain items of value.

Documentaries produced by the ABC and the National Geographic Society and similar bodies are telecast frequently and copies of these programs are available for educational use at a reasonable cost.

The Internet and other information services accessed by modem provide access to bulletin boards containing up-to-date information. Through interactive bulletin boards, students’ questions can be answered by experts. Pegasus is an excellent one for Geography students.

Information searches and retrieval are also possible by subscribing or paying a fee to such databanks as QNIS, operated by Queensland Newspaper. NASA provides a free service through a modem, including a written information service. The Department of Geographical Information also has a bulletin board available for school use.

There are a large number of commercially available computer packages suitable for use in schools These include databases, interactive computer-assisted learning packages and laboratory interfacing kits.

SUGAR—the Software Users Guide to Resources is a valuable reference for computer software availability and review. It is available from Education Queensland.

There is an extensive range of textbooks that can be used in a course in senior Geography. Because of the variation in units taught, the scope of these resources and the changes which occur in texts over time, this syllabus does not include a text resources list.

Many brochures, booklets, kits, charts, slides and videos are produced for educational purposes by government departments, and industry and community groups. Many provide catalogues of these resources and visiting speaker lists. Most organisations prefer requests to come from teachers. Requests should relate to specific topics.

The variety of resources that may be used in developing learning experiences in Geography include:

• written text; e.g. school textbooks, newspapers, magazines, journals and government, corporate and community group reports and brochures that provide a variety of descriptive, narrative and explanatory styles of written expression
• maps and atlases
• information technology, including computer databases, geographical information systems, computer networks and the Internet
• people
• photographs—horizontal, aerial (both vertical and oblique), satellite
• diagrammatic representations; e.g. graphs, line drawings, cross-sections, block diagrams, flow diagrams, organisational charts, cartoons
• statistical tables and reports
• music
• audiovisual material, including videotapes, films, slides, filmstrips and audio recordings
• multimedia packages
• field equipment.

Schools should make every effort to ensure that relevant and up-to-date materials are available to students through the resources owned by the teaching department and the resource centre. Likewise, students should be encouraged to present their work in a range of forms of communication and with a wide variety of resources.

built environment: the artefacts created by people in the evolution of the cultural landscape

catchment: the total area from which a single river system collects surface runoff; the intake area and all areas which contribute surface water to the intake area

development: is used in the social and economic context to describe the state of progress of nations, the extent to which the natural resources have been brought into the productive process, usually measured by a set of indicators which measure the social, cultural and political changes as well as welfare measures which describe the distribution of wealth, income and goods

environment: the external conditions in which an organism lives, including physical, social, cultural, and (when referring to humans), economic and political systems

natural hazard: a natural event such as an avalanche, blizzard, earthquake, drought, flood, fog, hail, hurricane, landslide, tornado, tsunami or volcano, that impacts on the livelihood of people; may be categorised by cause, such as geophysical and biological. Human activities may contribute to a natural hazard.

physical: the natural environment, including landforms, vegetation, climate and animals

planning: the process of organising an area’s physical environment, land use, communications, transport and utilities

resources: those parts of the environment that are useful to people. Resources become available through the combination of knowledge and technology and changing social demands.

resource management: a process of decision making whereby the natural and cultural resources are used within the framework of society’s economic, social and political system, and legal and administrative arrangements

rural: areas of a country which show signs of domination by agricultural or pastoral uses of land at the present or in the immediate past

social environment: the characteristics that make up the social identity of an area, e.g. class and ethnicity

sustainable: a term used to describe the use of resources to take account of the environmental consequences of economic activity; to ensure the use of resources to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations

urban: characteristic of or situated in a city or town, described in terms of size, density and concentration of employment.

Allaby, M, 1994, Concise Oxford Dictionary of Ecology, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Goodall, B, 1987, Dictionary of Human Geography, Penguin, Ringwood.

Whittow, J. 1984, Dictionary of Physical Geography, Penguin, Ringwood.