REFERENCING SOURCES OF INFORMATION

"Copyright QUT 1990. Reproduced by permission of Queensland University of Technology. Apart from fair dealing, all further reproduction prohibited."

Almost every work that is neither fiction nor an account based on personal experience relies in part on secondary sources (other publications on the same or related subjects) or on primary sources (manuscript collections, diaries, personal interviews, parliamentary documents etc.) (Chicago Manual of Style 1982, p. 400).

Because your work will rely heavily on secondary and at times primary sources, much of it will have to be referenced.You need to know, therefore, both how to reference and what to reference.Knowing how to reference is a matter of following conventional practices; deciding what to reference requires some judgment, based on your understanding of the purposes of references.

To validate a point, statement or argument. Opinions carry much more weight if they are supported by the ideas of experts.

To give credit to the originator of the thought. Ethical considerations, as well as the laws of copyright, require authors to acknowledge their sources.

To add value to a paper by demonstrating familiarity with relevant literature. Back to top

Any information (ideas or data) obtained from another author, whether that information be a direct quotation or paraphrased comments.

Some students think references are included in a paper only when a direct quotation is used.This is not so.All material of an informative nature (information you did not know before you read it) should be duly acknowledged.Sources of information of a general nature, however, such as facts and ideas that are common knowledge, do not need to be identified.For example, the equation for Einstein's theory of relativity (E=mc'), the chemical symbol for water (H2 0), or the date of the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia (1901) do not need acknowledgment.

Be careful when you quote an authority on a particular matter that you do not automatically attribute the same opinion to all similar authorities.For example, suppose one psychologist states a particular point of view about an aspect of child behaviour that you wish to use to support your argument.You should not generalise or imply from this particular instance by stating that all psychologists have the same opinion.

In general, the question of when or when not to acknowledge information, ideas and facts is largely a matter of commonsense and personal integrity and should not be a problem if the above comments are kept in mind.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism is defined as 'the act of taking and using another's work as one's own........ Any of the following acts constitutes plagiarism unless the work is appropriately acknowledged:

·copying the work of another student;

·directly copying any part of another's work;

·summarising the work of another;

·using or developing an idea or thesis derived from another person's work;

·using experimental results obtained by another.'

(QUT Handbook 1994, pp. 107-108)

Plagiarism, therefore, refers not only to the inclusion of an entire article or section in a paper, but also to the paraphrasing or rearrangement of another's material.Thus, summarising someone else's ideas and putting them into your own words does not free you from the responsibility of referencing your source.Failure to acknowledge sources of material correctly is an offence against professional standards.

HOW SHOULD SOURCES BE REFERENCED

Conventions and practices for referencing sources of information vary from discipline to discipline.It is essential, therefore, that you be familiar with the main referencing systems in use so that you are able to use whichever style is required by individual lecturers or by the journal for which the paper is being written. At Aldridge State High we will use the Australian Government Printing Service (AGPS), 1988 method of referencing. Other systems are quite legitimate and no one system is superior to all others' but you need to beconsistent in whichever system you use.

Systems of Referencing

It is not possible now to refer to THE Harvard System.You may, therefore, find a number of Style Manuals that purport to illustrate the Harvard System, yet use slightly different forms of punctuation and ordering of information. At Aldridge State High School we will use one version of the Harvard System only. This will simplify the process of learning to reference sources.

Author Year page systems do not use footnotes for referencing, but are based on parenthetical documentation within the text, which gives enough information to enable the reader to locate the item by checking the full citation in a bibliography at the end of the assignment.Numbers are not used for references in this systems.

We will use the Australian Government Printing Service (AGPS, 1988) system of referencing.

Year of Publication

The year of publication of a work (generally found at the front of a book, after the copyright symbol (0) should always follow the author's surname.If the author's name is part of your sentence, the year is placed in brackets immediately following the name; for example, Jones (1994).If the author's name is in brackets, then the year is written inside the same brackets, after a comma; for example, (Jones, 1994).

Author's Name

You may use the author's name in a sentence, followed always by the year of publication, as in Smith (1989) states that Sometimes you will refer to an author to support a statement of yours, without quoting or paraphrasing them directly, as in Some authors have noted that (Smith, 1989).

Page Number(s)

If you make a direct quotation, or paraphrase or summarise a point made by another writer at a particular place in their work, you should include the page number(s) on which their statements were made.Single pages are abbreviated as p. 1multiple pages are abbreviated as pp. 3-6.

In our System place page numbers after the date,inside the same brackets:

Of course, not all references are entirely straightforward. The following examples illustrate some variations, but they will not answer all the questions you are likely to have about referencing

Quoting from one page of a book or article with a single author:

Simpson (1967, p. 27) states that 'lack of exercise is our most serious health problem.'

'Lack of exercise is our most serious health problem' (Simpson 1967, p. 27).

Paraphrasing from two pages:

Research (1968, pp. 110-111) says attitudes are difficult to measure because there is much controversy over what an attitude is.

Reference to argument of a whole work:

Peters and Waterman (1982) built their whole argument on the cultural traits necessary for corporate success.

Example of book or article with two authors

When a work has two authors, both names should be cited.

Dumpy and Stake (1988, p. 321) say that 'Radical times may demand radical remedies'.

'Radical times 'may demand radical remedies' (Dunphy & Stace 1988, p. 321).

Example of book or article with three authors

Locke, Schweiger and Latham (1986, p. 75) say that executives must integrate what is

Reference to a work by more than three authors

Retro Active Two has four authors and would be referenced as Anderson et al. (2000).

Reference to more than one work by an author in the same year-

Davis (1984a) gives advice on pitfalls to avoid in organisational change.

Reference to more than one work in the same citation

One author quoted in the work of another

Adrian West (in Thomson 1970, p. 116) recommended that nursing education be made an integral part of the provincial education.

Quoting from an anonymous author

It is stated in Wild Life of Australia (1973, p. 9) that 'Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world.'

'Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world' (Wild Life of Australia 1973, p. 9).

Reference to a corporate author

The Australian Government Printing Service (1988, p. 129) claims -that economy 'm terms of time and space, and hence cost, is the hallhmark of the Harvard system of referencing

If the author of the article is named, the reference should be as for a book or an article.

Reference to an interview

Ms Amie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated in a personal (or telephone)interview on24 November 1994 that…..

Ms Amie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries stated that ………………(personal interview, 24 November 1994).

These referencing systems obviously do not by themselves give the reader complete information about sources.Such information can be obtained only by relating the referencing to a List of References or Bibliography, which is a necessary accompaniment to these systems.

CITING MATERIAL FROM THE INTERNET

As more and more academic material is being published on the Internet, students will find it a valuable source of reference material.However, as with print media, material from the Internet is covered by copyright law and must be referenced.Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism.

No definite standards for citing Internet resources are available, but there are many guides that are based on systems used for print resources, which have been adapted to electronic resources. (See Bibliography.) These guides will undoubtedly develop further over the next few years as the Style Manuals catch up with the Internet.

It is always possible to get the following two pieces of information and their inclusion is therefore mandatory:

Location or URL (Universal Reference Location)

Date YOU accessed this information

Where possible, you should also provide:

Citations within the text would look something like this

Anderson (1995, http://www.thorplus.purdue,edu/AquaNIC/Images/)says that.......

The important thing to remember - as in any referencing - is to provide the reader with sufficient information for them to be able to identify the resource accurately.

FURTHER HINTS ON REFERENCING SOURCES

Watch your Ps and Qs: Paraphrases and Quotations

Using direct quotations

Students are advised to use the direct quotation sparingly.A series of quotations does not constitute an essay.An essay is more than a copying-out exercise; it requires individual selection, ordering and development of ideas and should, therefore, demonstrate your ability to analyses synthesise, precis and paraphrase what is read, and relate it to the essay topic.

Use the direct quotation to support a point.It is up to you as the writer to make the point; the direct quotation reinforces it. (Hewitson 1986,p.7). (See Annotated Bibliography.)

When you do quote another writer, out of respect for the other writer you must quote the other person verbatim; that is, without altering any word ofthe original work.The exception to this rule is that you may change the case of the first word quoted to fit your sentence.For example, the first word of a quotation, which may have been a capital, may be changed to lower case to follow on from your own words.Other than this, you must copy exactly what the other writer wrote. If the other writer has made a grammatical or typing error, you still copy their work, with the note (sic) following it, to indicate that you recognise the mistake.

The quoted words are enclosed by single quotation marks ("). If your quote includes a quotation made in the original work, the enclosed quotation is enclosed by the opposite type of quotation marks; for example:

'Children need experience with "real world" problems' (Smith 1995, p. 22).

Short and long quotations

What is 'short' and 'long' is arbitrary, but the most common practice is to consider quotations of more than twenty words as 'long'.

A short quotation is incorporated into a sentence without disrupting the flow of the text, and quotation marks are used:

Glaser and Strauss (1967, p. 3) claim that 'science and religion have bnot always been opposed to each other '.

By contrast, a long quotation is set out as a block quotation. Single spacing is used for the block, even if (as is usually the case with typed papers) the rest of the text uses wider spacing. The block is indented, or put in italics, the actual number of spaces being arbitrary. No quotation marks are necessary.

Bass describes some of the qualities of the transformational leader in the following terms:

Using indirect speech (Paraphrases)

If you wish to use the work of another writer, but do not want to quote him or herdirectly, you may put the other writer's statement into your own words; that is, you may paraphrase the other writer's work. Note that this includes instances where you make reference to the ideas of another writer. An indication that you may need to make reference to another writer is if you find you have written something along the lines of 'Many people believe that.......... If indeed many people do agree with your statement, you should make reference to an authority in the field who has published such a statement.'

Because a paraphrase is not written using exactly the same words as the original writer, there are, no quotation marks. However, the author's name and the publication year are still used to reference the citation. The page number(s) will be needed if the other writer's idea or statement you refer to is made on a particular page or pages in; the original writing.If your sentence is a summary of the other writer's work as a whole, then page numbers are not needed.

Suppose that a writer named Lomas made the following statement: 'It is difficult to believe that Australia's present transportation system will be able to cope -with the needs of society in the 21st century.' You could refer to this statement as a quotation or in a paraphrase. These examples are all written using System 1.

Quotation: Lomas (1988, p. 54) states that 'it is difficult to believe that Australia's present transportation system will be able to cope with the needs of society in the 21st century.'

Paraphrases:Lomas (1988, p. 54) stated that he doubted the ability of our present transportation system to cope with the next century's requirements.

At least one writer has expressed doubts about the fitness of our transportation system for future needs (Lomas 1988, p. 54).

It is difficult to see how future needs for transportation will be served by Australia's present system (Lomas 1988, p. 54).

Use of footnotes with the (author-year-page) systems

While the, author-date systems do not use footnotes for referencing, they do not dispense with them entirely.However, footnotes used with the author-year-page systems should not be confused with footnotes in the footnoting system of referencing. In the author-year-page date systems of referencing, footnotes are reserved for contents footnotes or cross-referencing footnotes. Both these types are true footnotes in that they are always placed at the foot of the page.They are usually preceded by a symbol, such as an asterisk or dagger, but sometimes a superior number (or supernumeral) is used.The symbol or number is also placed in the text adjacent to the word(s) to which the footnote relates.Single-line spacing should be used when typing footnotes, even though wider spacing is used for the main text. Sometimes footnotes are a combination of both contents and cross-reference footnotes. Depending on its length, a footnote is sometimes carried over to the foot of the next page.

Contents footnotes add some information, often an elaboration of something in the text, which the writer considers would be interruptive of the text.There are numerous reasons for making contents footnotes - acknowledging indebtedness to a person for a particular point, mentioning other authorities who support or oppose statements made, explaining the meaning of a technical term, translating quotations in a foreign language and so on.

Cross-reference footnotes are also made to avoid undue interruption of the text, but they refer the reader to another part of the writing. For example: 'This theory is discussed in much greater detail in Chapter 5.1

Both types of footnotes should be used sparingly and with discretion. It is often better, particularly with a short comment such as the above example of a cross-reference footnote, to incorporate the information in the main text, perhaps using brackets to do so.

Students are often confused in the use of the terms 'List of References' and 'Bibliography'.This confusion is not surprising, as the different referencing systems use the 'words in different ways.Some information follows on how to write a Bibliography for the footnoting and endnoting systems; but concentration will be on conventions used in writing Lists of References and Bibliographies for the author-date systems. It cannot be over-emphasised that there is no one correct form.Authorities differ amongst themselves, but the differences are about matters of detail, such as punctuation, rather than about fundamentals. A particular form should be chosen and then used consistently.Some professional bodies lay down that a particular form must be used to ensure consistency; it does not imply that the required form is considered the only correct one.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES IN THE AUTHOR-DATE SYSTEMS

At the end of your essay or paper, place a List of References or a Bibliography arranged

in alphabetical order of authors' or editors' surnames, and chronologically for each author

where more than one work of an author is cited.

The term 'References' is used to indicate all those works cited in the text ' Bibliography' is

reserved for those works not cited but relevant to the subject.A List of References is

compulsory and a Bibliography is optional.

Be guided by your School or lecturer as to which convention you are to follow.

Examples of entries in Lists of References and Bibliographies

Generally only the author's initials should be used.However, the author's given name may be spelt out in full to assist the reader to distinguish the author from another author with the same initials.

Barrass, R. 1978, Scientists Must Write: a guide to better writing for scientists, engineers and students, Chapman and Hall, London.

2.Book: two authors

Names of authors should be cited in the order in which they appear on the title page-

Petelin, R. & Durham, M. 1992, 7he Professional Writing Guide: Writing Well and Knowing Why, Longman Professional, Melbourne.

3.Book: three authors

Vecchio, R., Heam, G. & Southey, G. 1992, Organisational Behaivour: Life at Work in

In Australia , Marrickville,, NSW. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

4.Book: more than three authors

All authors' names are listed in the 'List of References' or 'Bibliography', even when et al. is used in the textual reference. (See chapter 3.)

Binney, M., Harris, J., Martin, K. & Curtin, M. 1991, Jamaica's Heritage, an Untapped Resource, Mill Press, Kingston

5.Book: edition other than thefirst

Bevington, P. R. & Robinson, D. K. 1992, Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the

Physical Sciences, 2nd edn, McGraw Hill, Melbourne.

6.Book: authors(s) unknown

Make sure that there really is no named author, not just that you neglected to take note of the author's name during your reading.

The University Encyclopedia 1985, Roydon, London.

7.Book:editor(or compiler, reviser, translator) as 'author'

Often a book is a collection of writings - called 'readings', 'papers' or 'essays' - by different people writing separately, but published under the editorship of one or more persons.Entries in the List of References do not often refer to the whole work, but more often to one particular article in the book. (See example 8.) However, if you were writing a Bibliography, you would include an edited work.

Lewis, D. S., (ed.) 1997, The Written Assignment, QUT Publications, Brisbane.

8.Book: component part by one author in a work edited (or compiled) by another

Hudson, B. 1989, 'The commonwealth eastern Caribbean', in Urbanization, Planning and Development in the Caribbean, ed.R.B.Potter, Mansell, London and New York, pp. 181-211.

List all authors in the reference list.

9.Book: corporate authorship

It is important that the textual reference agree in all details with the entry in the List of References.

Department of Urban and Regional Development 1974, Urban Land.- Problems and Policies, AGPS, Canberra.

10.Journal article

Most of the same rules apply as for a book, but page numbers for the whole article are included in the bibliographic entry for a journal.

Muller, V. 1994, "'Trapped in the body": transsexualism, the law, 'sexual identity', The Australian Feminist Law Journal, vol. 3, August, pp. 103-107.

In scientific works the titles of journals are often abbreviated, but only for the appropriate readership of the paper.If you were writing an assignment in Education, for example, and quoting from a scientific journal, you would not abbreviate the title of that journal.If, however, your assignment was in Physics, it may be appropriate to do so.An example of a reference in the Journal of Physics E: Scientific Instruments would be:

Moore, G.1, Stacey, F.D., Tuck, G.J., Goodwin, B.D. & Roth, A. 1988, 'A balance for precise weighing in a disturbed environment', J. Phys.E: Sci.Instru., vol. 21, pp. 534-539.

11.'Standard' reference works

These are well known reference works, such as atlases and dictionaries, of which new editions come out fairly frequently.They are entered under the title even though an editor is mentioned in the title page.Editors come and go over the years and consequently these works are usually known by title.It is a matter of opinion whether editors should even be mentioned.

The Macquarie Illustrated World Atlas 1984, Macquarie Library, Sydney.

If the name of the author of a newspaper article is known, the same format is used as for journal articles, with volume and series information being replaced by the day and the month.

Cununing, F. 1993, 'Tax-free savings push', Sunday Mail, 22 May, p. 1.

If the article has no obvious author, the form of entry is:

Courier-Mail 13 Aug. 1993, p. 3.

Note that the article 'The' is disregarded when it is the first word of a newspaper's name.As names such as Times, Telegraph and so on are found all over the English speaking world, it may be necessary to add the place of publication.

13.Plays and poetry

Plays and poetry may be referenced in terms of lines, scenes and verses such as the following:

Murray, Les, Blood, verse 9, line 2.

Williamson, David, Don's Party, Act 2.

14.Quoting from a secondary source

This is a case of quoting words that you find quoted by somebody else; that is, you find the words in a secondary source, not in the author's original writing (the primary source).The referencing you use should make this clear, rather than suggesting that you used the primary source.In the example given in Chapter 3, West's words were found in a book written by Thomson.

Your List of References should include an entry for Thomson's book, not West's:

Thomson, J. G. 1970, Nursing Education in Ontario, Milestone Press, Toronto.

15. Unpublished material

Unpublished material is difficult to treat as an entity, as the details will vary according to the nature of the document.Check with the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (AGPS 1988, sections 9.96 - 9.98)

16.Government publications

Although references to government publications generally follow the patterns indicated in the previous sections, they tend to become more complicated.They are therefore not treated here.Refer to the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (AGPS 1988, sections 9.104 - 9.110), which is available in most libraries.

17.Referencing material from the Internet

No set styles exist yet in the Style Manuals for referencing material obtained from the Internet.However, the following information should be supplied in a Bibliography or List of References.The example given is an article and the styles used have been adapted from those set for print media.

Hannah, F. M. 1996, 'Marine cargo liability rules in Australia', Uniserve Law, LTRL: http://uniserve.edu.au/law/ (follow by access date).

If no author is immediately obvious, students should search through the material for all possible evidence of an author before resorting to the use of the title of the book or article (see p. 32) or corporate authorship (see p. 34) as their reference.

Beyond the MLA Handbook, URL: http://falcon.eku.edu/honors/beyond-mla/

Corporate authorship

American Psychological Association 1996, APA style electronic extension,

URL:http://www.nyu.edu/pages/psychology/WEAPAS/

18.Other non-print media

As these also differ markedly from one another, they cannot be treated here.Students are advised to consult appropriate works, particularly Eugene B.Fleischer's book included in the Annotated Bibliography and the APA Style Manual (1994).

19.Referencing external studies material

Material incorporated into the text from books of readings published by a university for students studying externally should be referenced as follows in your 'List of References':

(a)Sumner, R. 1991, 'Test types' in CUB443 Module Two Readings (1993), Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane.

In this example, the extract from Sumner 1991 is entitled 'Test Types' and is included in Module Two Readings sent to students taking CUB443 in 1993.The book was published in Brisbane by QUT.

(b)Queensland University of Technology 1993, CUB443 Module One Notes, Brisbane, QUT.

In this example, if the author of Module One Notes is unknown, the author is then deemed to be the university as corporate author.Only the one date (1993) applies in this case.

In your own text, give the page number of the QUT booklet, not the original source.

Hence, 'Sumner (1993, p. 52) states that...... refers the leader to-page 52 of the 1993 QUT booklet.

20.Conference proceedings

Papers presented at conferences and published as proceedings are referenced in the same manner as mutiauthor books.

Hart, G., Albrecht, M. Bull, R. & Marshall, L. 1992, 'Peer consultation: a professional development opportunity for nurses employed in rural settings', Infront, Outback - Conference Proceedings, Australian Rural Health Conference, Toowoomba, pp. 143-148.

21.Interviews

Interviews and other personal communications are not listed in the list of references or bibliography, but are referred to in the text as explained in Chapter 3.

Writing Numerical Values

When numerical values of more than five digits are written the digits should be grouped in sets of three, starting from the position of the decimal point.The sets should be separated by a space (half space when typing) and not by commas.When there are four digits the use of the space is optional.However, if entering the numbers in a table, you should use the space to maintain vertical alignment with other lines of more than four digits.Numbers less than unity require a leading zero before the decimal marker: 0.73 is correct, .73 is incorrect.

Many physical quantities have an uncertainty associated with them.For example, the length of a metal bar might have been measured to within 0. 1 mm; the result should be written in the format (967.7+0. 1) mm.Parentheses are used and the units are written once.Ifthe value has a multiplying power of ten then this should also appear outside the parentheses: (967.7+.l)xl0-3m. Never express the value and its uncertainty in different units or multiplied by different powers of ten.

Tables of Data

A table is a good way of presenting collections of numerical (or other symbolic) information.Several points to note are:

Maintain alignment of numerical information on the decimal point.

Use a common multiplying factor if necessary. For example, if you have currents ranging

between 10 µA and 10 mA, express them all in either µA or mA but not a mixture.

Place the units and any common multiplying factor in the heading of the row or column; do not replicate the units on each number.

If the numbers have a common uncertainty, this can also be placed in the column heading. If the uncertainties vary, you can use a separate column with appropriate heading or include them in the same column as the value using the ± symbol. Avoid overfilling the boxes within the table. Explanatory notes may be added to a table by using an appropriate superscript notation. Tables should be numbered and have a caption.

Before formalising your table layout, try sketching it out roughly and look at it from the point of view of a reader who is not familiar with the data being presented. It is far easier to modify the structure of the table before you have gone to the trouble of typing it.

Figures and Captions

If figures are to be presented, they should be incorporated into the text at an appropriate location, usually after the first textual reference to the figure and on the same or next page.

Figures should be numbered and have a caption.The positioning of captions on tables and figures is not critical, but you should be consistent throughout the assignment.A different typeface to the main text may be used if available.If the caption is meant to form a sentence, it should be punctuated and capitalised as such.If the caption is simply a descriptive name, no full stop is required.

When referring to tables or figures within the text use the word Table or Figure, followed by the number; e.g. as shown in Figure 2.

Graphs

Graphs are a useful method of presenting numerical data in such a way as to emphasise or clarify various inter-relationships; e.g. trends with time.

Graphs are an extremely powerful method of highlighting relationships between data but unfortunately sometimes are misused. Classic examples of misuse appear in advertising material where origins are not shown on axes and scales are inappropriately magnified or reduced. In this case the aim is to deceive, not to enlighten.

There are many possible types of graphs: line graphs, 3D meshes, pie charts, bar charts etc. The types of graphs used vary widely even within a given discipline. The full scope of graphing, therefore, is beyond this simple guide and you should peruse works within your own field to gain an appreciation of any conventions applied or common graphing techniques used.

However, there are some points you should remember:

·Before preparing a graph, consider carefully what it is that you are trying to achieve and select graph style, axes and scales to best achieve this.

·Use a descriptive title on your graph.

·Make your graph large enough so that all details can be seen.

·Label any axes with appropriate names and units.

Use clearly printed labels and legends.

Uncertainties in measured data should be indicated using error bars.

·Points marked on graphs should be marked using a symbol such as an open circle, filled box, + symbol etc. and not as points.Points do not reproduce well in photocopying and can often be obscured by lines drawn at a later stage.

·In general graphs are treated as figures and should be captioned, numbered and referred to as such.

"Copyright QUT 1990. Reproduced by permission of Queensland University of Technology. Apart from fair dealing, all further reproduction prohibited."

DIRECTIVE WORDS

Analyse	Show the essence of - something by breaking it down into its component parts and examining each part in detail.
Argue	Present the case for and against a particular proposition.
Compare	Look for similarities and differences between propositions.
Criticise	Give your judgment about the merit of theories or opinions about the truth of facts, and back your judgment by a discussion of evidence.
Define	Set down the precise meaning of a word or phrase. Show that the distinctions implied in the definition are necessary.
Describe	Give a detailed or graphic account of the characteristics of the subject.
Discuss	Investigate or examine by argument, sift and debate, giving reasons for and against.
Enumerate	List or specify and describe one by one.
Evaluate	Make an appraisal of the worth of something, in the light of its apparent truth or utility. Include your personal opinion, supported by evidence: Make decisions about strength and weakness.
Explain	Make clear, interpret, and account for in detail.
Illustrate	Explain and make clear by the use of concrete examples or by the use of figure diagrams.
Interpret	Bring out the meaning of, and make clear and explicit; usually also giving your own judgment.
Justify	Defend or show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions.
Outline	Give the main points or general principles of a subject, omitting minor details, and emphasising structure and relationship.
Prove	Demonstrate truth or falsity by presenting evidence.
Relate	Narrate or show how things are connected to each other and to what extent they are alike or affect each other.
Review	Make a survey of, examining the subject critically.
State	Specify details fully and clearly.
Summarise	Give a concise account of the chief points or substance of a matter, omitting details and examples.
Trace	Identify and describe the development or course of history of a topic from some point or origin.

[Adapted from Marshall and Rowland (1993).]

1. GENERAL	5. REFERENCE LISTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES
2. HOW TO USE VARIOUS TYPES OF QUOTES	6. MATHS AND SCIENCE
3. 13 EXAMPLES OF IN-TEXT REFERENCING	7. KEY WORDS IN ESSAYS AND ASSIGNMENTS
4. CITING MATERIAL FROM THE INTERNERT

1.Book: one author	2.Book: two authors
3.Book: three authors	4.Book: more than three authors
5.Book: edition other than the first	6.Book: authors(s) unknown
7.Book:editor(or compiler, reviser, translator) as author'	8.Book:component part by one author in a work edited (or compiled) by another
9.Book: corporate authorship	10.Journal article
11.'Standard'reference works	12.Newspapers
13.Plays and poetry	14.Quoting from a secondary source
15.Unpublished material	16.Government publications
17.Referencing material from the Internet	18.Other non-print media
19.Referencing external studies material	20.Conference proceedings
21.Interviews